Category : Science and Education
Archive : PERIOD.ZIP
Filename : PERIODIC.SCR
Output of file : PERIODIC.SCR contained in archive : PERIOD.ZIP
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ÎB C ÎB C õD ~Hydrogen~1a - Alkali Metals~Colorless~Gas~H~ 2~H O~ 2~Cavendish~Hydro - water~Genes - forming~1, -1~1 - 3~3 = á- 12.5 y~~~H O - Water~ 2~H SO - Sulfuric Acid~ 2 4 (acids)~C H OH - Ethanol~ 2 5 (alcohols)~NaOH - Sodium Hydroxide~ (bases)~Helium~0 - Noble Gases~Colorless~Gas~He~~?~~Janssen~Helios - sun~~0~3 - 6~5 = n + à 10 E-24 s~6 = b- 0.85 s~~?~~~~~~~~Lithium~1a - Alkali Metals~ Silver~Solid~Li~~LiO~ 2~Arfvedson~Lithos - stone~~1~5 - 9~5 = p + à short~8 = á- 0.88 s~9 = ç 0.17 s~LiAlH - Lithium Al Hydride~ 4 (reducing agents)~Li C H O - Lithium Citrate~ 3 6 5 7 (solvent)~Li CO - Lithium Carbonate~ 2 3 (minerals)~LiCl - Lithium Chloride~ (salts)~Beryllium~2a - Alkaline Earths~Grey~Solid~Be~~Be Al Si O~ 3 2 6 18~Vauquelin~Beryl~~2~7 - 10~7 = ç 54.5 d~8 = à 10 E-16 s~10 = á- 10 E+6 y~Be Al Si O - Beryl~ 3 2 6 18 (gems)~BeO - Beryllium Oxide~ (bromellite)~BeAl O - Beryllium Aluminate~ 2 4 (chrysoberyl)~Be (OH)BO - Be Orthoborate~ 2 3 (hambergite)~Boron~3a - Aluminum Family~Yellow~Solid~B~~Na B O~ 2 4 7~Gay-Lussac~Buraq (Ar.)~~3~8 - 12~8 = á+ 0.61 s~9 = ç 10 E-19 s~12 = á- 0.027 s~Na B O - Sodium Borate~ 2 4 7 (soaps)~H BO - Boric Acid~ 3 3 (eyewash)~B H - Boron Hydride~ 2 6 (diborane)~CB - Boron Carbide~ 4 (abrasive)~Carbon~4a - Carbon-Silicon Family~Black~Solid~C~~CO~ 2~Ancients~Carbo - charcoal~~4, 2~10 - 15~10 = á+ ç 19.1 s~11 = á+ 20.5 m~14 = á- 5700 y~CO - Carbon Dioxide~ 2~C H OH - Ethanol~ 2 5 (alcohols)~CH COOH - Acetic Acid~ 3 (organic acids)~C H - Acetylene~ 2 2~Nitrogen~5a - Nitrogen-Phosphorus Family~Colorless~Gas~N~ 2~NaNO~ 3~Rutherford~Niter forming~~3, -3, 5~12 - 17~13 = á+ 10.1 m~16 = á- ç 7.3 s~17 = á- 4.13 s~NaNO - Sodium Nitrate~ 3 (fertilizers)~NH - Ammonia~ 3~HNO - Nitric Acid~ 3~N O - Nitrous Oxide~ 2 3 (anaesthetic)~Oxygen~6a - Chalcogens~Colorless~Gas~O~ 2~H O~ 2~Priestley~Oxys - acid~Genes - forming~-2~14 - 19~14 = á+ ç 76.5 s~15 = á+ 2.1 m~19 = á- ç 29.5 s~H O - Water~ 2~CO - Carbon Dioxide~ 2 (oxides)~H SO - Sulfuric Acid~ 2 4 (acids)~C H OH - Ethanol~ 2 5 (alcohols)~Fluorine~7a - Halogens~Green, yellow~Gas~F~ 2~NaF~~Scheele~Fluo - flow~~-1~17 - 20~17 = á+ 66 s~18 = á+ 1.87 h~20 = á- ç 12 s~NaF - Sodium Fluoride~ (rat poisoning)~CaF - Calcium Fluoride~ 2 (fluor spar)~Na AlF - Sodium Al Fluoride~ 3 6 (cryolite)~(CF ) - Teflon~ 4 n~Neon~0 - Noble Gases~Colorless~Gas~Ne~~Ne~~Ramsay~Neos - new~~0~19 - 23~19 = á+ 18.2 s~23 = á- 40 s~~?~~~~~~~~Sodium~1a - Alkali Metals~ Silver~Solid~Na~~NaCl~~Davy~Soda~~1~20 - 25~22 = á+ ç 2.6 y~24 = á- ç 14.9 h~25 = á- ç 62 s~NaCl - Sodium Chloride~ (salts)~NaOH - Sodium Hydroxide~ (caustic soda)~Na PO - Tri-sodium Phosphate~ 3 4 (cleaning agent)~Na B O - Sodium Borate~ 2 4 7 (soap)~Magnesium~2a - Alkaline Earths~ Silver~Solid~Mg~~Mg(OH)~ 2~Black~Magnesia - district~ in Thessaly~2~23 - 27~23 = á+ 11.9 s~27 = á- ç 9.6 m~~Mg(OH) - Magnesium Hydroxide~ 2 (brucite)~MgSO - Magnesium Sulfate~ 4 (epsom salt)~MgCO ùCaCO - Magnesium Carbonate~ 3 3 (dolomite)~MgCl - Magnesium Chloride~ 2 (fireproofing)~Aluminum~3a - Aluminum Family~ Silver~Solid~Al~~Al O~ 2 3~Whler~Alumen - alum~~3~24 - 29~26 = á+ 7 s~28 = á- ç 2.30 m~29 = á- ç 6.7 m~NH Al(SO ) - Ammonium Al Sulfate~ 4 4 2 (alum)~Al O - Aluminum Oxide~ 2 3 (bayerite)~AlO(OH) - Aluminum hydroxide~ (boehmite)~AlF - Aluminum Fluoride~ 3 (fleullite)~Silicon~4a - Carbon-Silicon Family~Grey~Solid~Si~~SiO~ 2~Berzelius~Silex - flint~~4~27 - 31~27 = á+ 4.9 s~31 = á- 2.6 h~~SiO - Silicon dioxide~ 2 (sand, quartz)~XXSiO - Metal Silicates~ 3 (gems)~H SiO - Silicic Acid~ 2 3 (acids)~(HSiOCH ) - Silicones~ 3 n~Phosphorus~5a - Nitrogen-Phosphorus Family~Yellow, red, violet~Solid~P~ 4~H PO~ 3 4~Brand~Phosphoros -~ light bearing~5, 3~29 - 34~30 = á+ 2.5 m~32 = á- 14.3 d~33 = á- 25 d~H PO - Phosphoric Acid~ 3 4 (acids)~Ca (PO ) - Phosphorite~ 3 4 2 (fertilizers)~Na PO - Tri-Sodium Phosphate~ 3 4 (cleaning agents)~P O - Phosphoric Anhydride~ 2 5 (Toxic warfare smoke)~Sulfur~6a - Chalcogens~Yellow~Solid~S~ 8~H SO~ 2 4~Ancients~Latin~~6, 4, -2~31 - 37~31 = á+ 2.9 s~35 = á- 87.1 d~37 = á- ç 5.0 m~H SO - Sulfuric Acid~ 2 4 (acids)~CaSO - Calcium Sulfate~ 4 (gypsum)~FeS - Ferrous Sulfide~ 2 (pyrites)~SO - Sulfur Dioxide~ 2 (oxidants)~Chlorine~7a - Halogens~Greenish yellow~Gas~Cl~ 2~NaCl~~Scheele~Chloros -~ greenish-yellow~-1, 5, 7~33 - 39~36 = á- á+ ç 10 E+5 y~38 = á- ç 38.5 m~39 = á- 55.5 m~NaCl - Sodium Chloride~ (salts)~HCl - Hydrochloric Acid~ (acids)~HClO - Chloric Acid~ 3 (oxyacids)~ClO - Chlorine Dioxide~ 2 (oxidants)~Argon~0 - Noble Gases~Colorless~Gas~Ar~~?~~Rayleigh~Argon - inactive~~0~35 - 42~37 = K 34.1 d~39 = á- 265 y~41 = á- ç 1.8 h~ArBF - very unstable~ 3~~~~~~~Potassium~1a - Alkali Metals~ Silver~Solid~K~~KCl~~Davy~Potash~~1~37 - 44~40 = á- á+ ç 10 E+9 y~42 = á- ç 12.4 h~43 = á- ç 22.4 h~KCl - Potassium Chloride~ (fertilizers)~KOH - Potassium Hydroxide~ (caustic potash)~KNO - Potassium Nitrate~ 3 (pyrotechnics)~K CO - Potassium Carbonate~ 2 3 (make hard glass)~Calcium~2a - Alkaline Earths~ Silver~Solid~Ca~~CaSO~ 4~Davy~Calx - lime~~2~39 - 49~41 = K X-ray 10 E+5 y~45 = á- 152 d~47 = á- ç 5.8 d~CaSO - Calcium Sulfate~ 4 (gypsum)~CaO - Calcium Oxide~ (lime)~CaCO - Calcium Carbonate~ 3 (limestone)~Ca(ClO) - Calcium Hypochlorite~ 2 (releases chlorine)~Scandium~3b - Rare Earths~ Silver~Solid~Sc~~ScSi O~ 2 7~Nilson~Scandinavia~~3~41 - 49~44 = á+ ç 3.96 h~46 = á- ç 85 d~47 = á- ç 3.4 d~ScSi O - Scandium Silicate~ 2 7 (thortveitite)~Sc (SO ) - Scandium Sulfate~ 2 4 3~Sc (CO ) - Scandium Carbonate~ 3 3 3~ScCl - Scandium Chloride~ 3~Titanium~4b - Titanium Family~ Silver~Solid~Ti~~Ti O~ 2 3~Gregor~Titans - first~ sons of Earth~4, 3~43 - 51~45 = á+ ç 3.09 h~51 = á- ç 6 m~~TiO - Titanium Oxide~ 2 (pigments)~Na TiO - Sodium Titanate~ 2 3~TiC - Titanium Carbide~ (abrasive)~TiCl - Titanium Tetrachloride~ 4 (artificial pearls)~Vanadium~5b - Vanadium Family~Grey~Solid~V~~VSO~ 4~Sefstrom~Vanadis - goddess~ of Scandinavia~5, 4, 3, 2~47 - 52~48 = á+ ç 16.0 d~49 = K 600 d~52 = á- ç 2.6 m~VSO - Vanadium Sulfate~ 4 (deep-blue color)~NH VO - Ammonium Vanadate~ 4 3 (yellow color)~V O - Vanadium Pentoxide~ 2 5 (sulfuric acid catalyst)~VCl - Vanadium Dichloride~ 2 (green color)~Chromium~6b - Chromium Family~ Silver~Solid~Cr~~Na CrO~ 2 4~Vauquelin~Chroma - color~~3, 6, 2~48 - 55~49 = á+ ç 41.9 m~51 = ç e- 26 d~55 = 1.3 h~Na CrO - Sodium Chromate~ 2 4 (oxidants)~H Cr O - Dichromic Acid~ 2 2 7 (chemical cleaner)~CrCl - Chromous Chloride~ 2 (reducing agent)~Cr(OH) - Chromic Hydroxide~ 3 (amphoteric)~Manganese~7b - Manganese Family~Grey-pink~Solid~Mn~~KMnO~ 4~Gahn~Magnes - magnet~~2, 4, 7~51 - 56~52 = á- ç 6.2 d~54 = á- ç 310 d~56 = á- ç 2.59 h~KMnO - Potassium Permanganate~ 4 (oxidizing agent)~Mn(C H O ) - Manganous Acetate~ 2 3 2 2 (dye mordant)~MnCO - Manganous Carbonate~ 3 (pigment)~MnCl - Manganous Chloride~ 2 (in batteries)~Iron~8b - Iron Triad~ Silver~Solid~Fe~~Fe O~ 2 3~Ancients~Ferrum - Latin~~3, 2~52 - 59~53 = á+ ç 8.9 m~55 = K 2.94 y~59 = á- ç 46 d~Fe O - Ferrosoferric Oxide~ 3 4 (magnetite)~FeS - Ferrous Disulfide~ 2 (pyrites)~FeSO - Ferrous Sulfate~ 4 (inks, dyes)~Fe O - Ferric Oxide~ 2 3 (rouge)~Cobalt~8b - Iron Triad~ Silver~Solid~Co~~CoCl~ 2~Brandt~Kobold - goblin~ or evil spirit~2, 3~55 - 64~58 = á+ ç 72 d~60 = á- ç 5.25 y~61 = á- ç 1.75 h~CoCl - Cobalt Chloride ~ 2 (detects moisture)~K Co(NO ) - K Cobaltinitrite~ 3 2 6 (Fischer's yellow)~CoO - Cobaltous Oxide~~Co O - Cobaltic Oxide~ 2 3~Nickel~8b - Iron Triad~ Silver~Solid~Ni~~NiO~~Cronstedt~Kopparnickel -~ false copper~2, 3~56 - 66~57 = á+ ç e- 36.4 h~59 = K 10 E+5 y~63 = á- 85 y~NiO - Nickelous Oxide~ (bunsenite)~Ni S - Nickelous Sulfide~ 3 2 (haezlewoodite)~NiSb - Nickel Antimonide~ (breithauptite)~NiAs - Nickel Arsenide~ (niccolite)~Copper~1b - Coinage Metals~Reddish-yellow~Solid~Cu~~CuSO~ 4~Ancients~Cuprum - from the~ island of Cyprus~2, 1~58 - 67~61 = á+ ç 3.33 h~62 = á- ç 9.9 m~64 = á- á+ ç 12.8 h~CuSO - Cupric Sulfate~ 4 (electrolyte)~Cu O - Cuprous Oxide~ 2 (ruby glass)~CuO - Cupric Oxide~ (oxidizing agent)~CuCl - Cupric Chloride~ 2 (absorbs moisture)~Zinc~2b - Zinc Family~Bluish-white~Solid~Zn~~ZnO~~Marggraf~Zink - German~~2~62 - 73~62 = á+ ç 9.33 h~63 = á+ ç 38.3 m~65 = á+ ç e- 250 d~ZnO - Zinc Oxide~ (pigment)~Zn(OH) - Zinc Hydroxide~ 2 (amphoteric)~ZnCl - Zinc Chloride~ 2 (dry cells)~ZnSO - Zinc Sulfate~ 4 (mordant)~Gallium~3a - Aluminum Family~Grey-blue~Liquid~Ga~~Ga O~ 2 3~de Boisbaudran~Gallia - Latin~~3~64 - 74~67 = e- ç 78.3 h~68 = á+ ç 68 m~70 = b- ç 20 m~Ga H - Digallane~ 2 6~Ga O - Gallium Sesquioxide~ 2 3~Ga O - Gallium Suboxide~ 2~GaCl - Gallium Dichloride~ 2~Germanium~4a - Carbon-Silicon Family~Grey-white~Solid~Ge~~GeO~~Winkler~Germania - Germany~~4~66 - 78~69 = á+ ç 40 h~71 = e- K 11.0 d~75 = á- ç 82 m~Ge H - Digermane~ 2 6~Ge H - Trigermane~ 3 8~Ge N - Germanium Tetranitride~ 3 4~GeBr - Germanium Dibromide~ 2~Arsenic~5a - Nitrogen-Phosphorus Family~ Silver~Solid~As~ 4~As O~ 2 3~Magnus~Arsenikon - yellow~ orpiment~3, -3, 5~70 - 81~73 = e- K 76 d~74 = á- á+ ç 17.5 d~76 = á- ç 27.6 h~As O - Arsenic Trioxide~ 2 3 (arsenolite)~As S - Arsenic Trisulfide~ 2 3 (orpiment)~H AsO - Arsenic Acid~ 3 4~AsCl - Arsenic Trichloride~ 3~Selenium~6a - Chalcogens~Red~Solid~Se~ 8~SeO~ 2~Berzelius~Selene - moon~~4, 6, -2~70 - 84~79 = á- 10 E+4 y~81 = á- 17 m~83 = á- ç 25 m~SeCl - Selenium Tetrachloride~ 4~SeO - Selenium Dioxide~ 2~H SeO - Selenic Acid~ 2 4~SeOCl - Selenium oxychloride~ 2~Bromine~7a - Halogens~Dark red~Liquid~Br~ 2~HBr~~Balard~Bromos - stench~~-1, 1, 5~74 - 89~82 = á- ç 35.7 h~83 = á- 2.4 h~84 = á- ç 33 m~C H Br - Ethylene Dibromide~ 2 4 2 (in leaded gasoline)~HBr - Hydrogen Bromide~~HBrO - Hypobromous Acid~~AgBr - Silver Bromide~ (photographic)~Krypton~0 - Noble Gases~Colorless~Gas~Kr~~KrF~ 2~Ramsay~Kryptos - hidden~~0~77 - 97~79 = á+ ç K 34.5 h~81 = e- K 10 E+5 y~85 = á- ç 9.4 y~KrF - Krypton Fluoride~~KrF - Krypton Difluoride~ 2~KrF - Krypton Tetrafluoride~ 4~~~Rubidium~1a - Alkali Metals~ Silver-white~Solid~Rb~~Rb O~ 2~Bunsen~Rubidius - dark red~~1~81 - 97~84 = á+ K 40 d~86 = ç K 1.06 m~87 = á- ç 10 E+10 y~RbCl - Rubidium Chloride~~Rb SiF - Rubidium Fluorosilicate~ 2 6~Rb CO - Rubidium Carbonate~ 2 3~RbNO - Rubidium Nitrate~ 3~Strontium~2a - Alkaline Earths~ Silver-while-yellow~Solid~Sr~~SrO~~Crawford~Strontian - town~ in Scotland~2~81 - 97~85 = ç K 65 d~89 = á- 54 d~90 = á- 25 y~SrBr - Strontium Bromide~ 2 (treat insomnia)~SrCl - Strontium Chloride~ 2 (welding fluxes)~SrCO - Strontium Carbonate~ 3 (sugar refining)~Sr(ClO ) - Strontium Chlorate~ 3 2 (pyrotechnics)~Yttrium~3b - Rare Earths~Grey-black~Solid~Y~~Y O~ 2 3~Gadolin~Ytterby - village~ in Sweden~3~84 - 97~87 = á+ ç K 80 h~88 = á+ ç K 105 d~90 = á- 65 h~Y O - Yttrium Oxide~ 2 3 (yttria)~YC - Yttrium Carbide~ 2~YBr - Yttrium Bromide~ 3~Y (CO ) - Yttrium Carbonate~ 2 3 3~Zirconium~4b - Titanium Family~ Silver-white-grey~Solid~Zr~~ZrO~ 2~Klaproth~Zargun - gold color~~4~86 - 97~88 = ç K 150 d~89 = á+ K 80.1 h~93 = á- 10 E+6 y~ZrO - Zirconium Oxide~ 2 (in ceramics)~Zr(OH) - Zirconium Hydroxide~ 2 (treat poison ivy)~Zr(C H COO) - Zirconium Lactate~ 2 5 2 (deodorants)~ZrSiO - Zirconium Orthosilicate~ 4 (zircon)~Niobium~5b - Vanadium Family~Grey~Solid~Nb~~NcO~ 2~Hatchett~Niobe - daughter~ of Tantalos~5, 3~90 - 99~91 = e- K 8 y~92 = ç K 10.1 d~94 = á- e- ç 10 E+4 y~NbH - Niobium Hydride~~NbN - Niobium Nitride~~NbC - Niobium Carbide~~NbCl - Niobium Pentachloride~ 5~Molybdenum~6b - Chromium Family~ Silver-white~Solid~Mo~~Mo O~ 2 3~Scheele~Molybdos - lead~~6, 3~91 - 105~93 = e- ç K <2 y~99 = á- ç 67 h~101 = á- ç 14.6 m~Mo O - Molybdenum Pentoxide~ 2 5 (molyb. blue)~Mo S - Molybdenum Sesquisufide~ 2 3 (molybdenite)~MoO - Molybdenum Trioxide~ 3 (molybdite)~H MnO - Molybdic Acid~ 2 4~Technetium~7b - Manganese Family~?~Solid~Tc~~Tc S~ 2 7~Segr~Technetos - artificial~~6, 7~92 - 105~97 = á+ >1000 y~98 = á+ ç K 41 m~99 = á- 10 E+5 y~Tc S - Technetium Sulfide~ 2 7~Tc O - Technetium Oxide~ 2 7~NH TcO - Ammonium Technetate~ 4 4~~~Ruthenium~8b - Platinum-Metal Triad~Black~Solid~Ru~~RuO~ 4~Klaus~Ruthenia - Ukraine~~3, 4, 8~95 - 107~103 = á- ç 39.8 d~105 = á- ç 4.5 h~106 = á- 1 y~RuS - Ruthenium Sulfide~ 2 (laurite)~RuCl - Ruthenous Chloride~ 3~Ru(CO) - Ruthenium Carbonyl~ 5~RuF - Ruthenium Fluoride~ 5~Rhodium~8b - Platinum-Metal Triad~Grey-white~Solid~Rh~~Rh O~ 2~Wollaston~Rhodon - rose~~3, 4~99 - 109~100 = á+ ç e- 21 h~101 = ç K 4.5 d~102 = á+ á- g 210 d~RhCl - Rhodium Chloride~ 4~Rh O - Rhodium Oxide~ 2 3~Rh (SO ) - Rhodium Sulfate~ 2 4 3 (alum)~RhF - Rhodium Fluoride~ 3~Palladium~8b - Platinum-Metal Triad~ Silver-white~Solid~Pd~~PdO~ 2~Wollaston~Pallas - planetoid~~2, 4~100 - 112~103 = K 17 d~107 = á- 10 E+6 y~109 = á- 13.1 h~PdO - Palladium monoxide~~PdCl - Palladium Chloride~ 2~Pd H - Palladium Hydride~ 2~PdSO - Palladium Sulfate~ 4~Silver~1b - Coinage Metals~Silver-white~Solid~Ag~~Ag O~ 2~Ancients~Soelfer - Anglo-Saxon~~1~102 - 115~105 = ç K 40 d~110 = á- ç 270 d~111 = á- ç 7.5 d~AgBr - Silver Bromide~ (photography)~AgI - Silver Iodide~ (cloud seeding)~Ag O - Silver Oxide~ 2 (coloring glass)~AgNO - Silver Nitrate~ 3 (hair dyes)~Cadmium~2b - Zinc Family~Silver-white~Solid~Cd~~CdO~~Stromeyer~Kadmia - earth~~2~105 - 117~109 = ç K 330 d~111 = ç e- 48.7 m~113 = á- 5.1 y~CdI - Cadmium Iodide~ 2 (photography)~CdS - Cadmium Sulfide~ (yellow pigment)~Cd(CN) - Cadmium Cyanide~ 2 (electroplating)~CdSO - Cadmium Sulfate~ 4 (electrolyte)~Indium~3a - Aluminum Family~Silver-white~Solid~In~~InO~~Reich~Indigo - spectral~ color~2~107 - 119~114 = e- 50 d~115 = á- 10 E+14 y~116 = á- ç 54 m~InCl - Indium Chloride~~InBr - Indium Dibromide~ 2~InF - Indium Trifluoride~ 3~In(OH) - Indium Hydroxide~ 3~Tin~4a - Carbon-Silicon Family~Grey~Solid~Sn~~SnO~~Ancients~Tin - Anglo-Saxon~~4, 2~108 - 127~117 = e- ç 14.5 d~119 = e- 245 d~121 = á- >400 d~SnF - Stannous Fluoride~ 2 (dental use)~SnCl - Stannic Chloride~ 4~SnH - Stannic Hydride~ 4 (stannane)~SnO - Stannic Dioxide~ 2 (cassiterite)~Antimony~5a - Nitrogen-Phosphorus Family~Silver-white~Solid~Sb~~Sb O~ 2 3~Ancients~Stibium - mark~~3, 5~116 - 134~119 = K 39 h~120 = e- ç K 6.0 d~122 = á- ç 2.8 d~Sb O - Antimony Trioxide~ 2 3 (senarmontite)~Sb S - Antimony Trisulfide~ 2 3 (stibnite)~SbCl - Antimony Trichloride~ 3 (butter of Antimony)~Sb Te - Antimony Tritelluride~ 2 3~Tellurium~6a - Chalcogens~Silver-white~Solid~Te~ 2~TeO~ 2~vonRichenstein~Tellus - earth~~4, 6, -2~117 - 137~121 = e- ç 154 d~123 = e- 121 d~125 = e- 58 d~TeO - Tellurium Dioxide~ 2 (tellurite)~H TeO - Tellurious Acid~ 2 3~TeCl - Tellurium Tetrachloride~ 4~TeSO - Tellurium Sulfur Oxide~ 3~Iodine~7a - Halogens~Violet-black~Solid~I~ 2~IO~ 2~Courtois~Iodes - violet~~-1, 1, 5~121 - 139~126 = á+ á- ç 13 d~129 = á- ç 10 E+7 y~131 = á- ç 8.04 d~KI - Potassium Iodide~ (treat goiter)~CHI - Iodoform~ 3 (antiseptic)~AgI - Silver Iodide~ (photography)~I - Iodine~ 2(alc) (tincture of iodine)~Xenon~0 - Noble Gases~Colorless~Gas~Xe~~XeO~ 3~Ramsay~Xenon - stranger~~0~124 - 145~131 = e- 12.0 d~133 = á- e- 2.3 d~135 = e- 15.3 m~XeF - Xenon Difluoride~ 2~XeF - Xenon Tetrafluoride~ 4~XeF - Xenon Hexafluoride~ 6~XeOF - Xenon Oxytetrafluoride~ 4~Cesium~1a - Alkali Metals~Silver-white~Solid~Cs~~Cs O~ 2~Bunsen~Caesius - sky blue~~1~127 - 145~132 = e- ç K 7.1 d~134 = á- ç 2.3 y~135 = á- 10 E+6 y~CsCl - Cesium Chloride~~CsH - Cesium Hydride~~CsOH - Cesium Hydroxide~~Cs SO - Cesium Sulfate~ 2 4~Barium~2a - Alkaline Earths~Yellowish-silver~Solid~Ba~~BaO~~Davy~Barys - heavy~~2~128 - 145~135 = e- 28.7 h~139 = á- ç 85 m~140 = á- ç 12.8 d~BaSO - Barium Sulfate~ 4 (radiology)~Ba(NO ) - Barium Nitrate~ 3 2 (green fireworks)~BaF - Barium Fluoride~ 2 (embalming)~BaSiF - Barium Fluorosilicate~ 6 (fruit sprays)~Lanthanum~Lanthanide Series - Rare Earths~Grey~Solid~La~~La O~ 2 3~Mosander~Lanthano - to lie~ hidden~3~131 - 145~138 = á- ç 10 E+12 y~140 = á- ç 40.0 h~141 = á- 3.7 h~La O - Lanthanum Oxide~ 2 3 (camera lenses)~LaCl - Lanthanum Chloride~ 3~La(OH) - Lanthanum Hydroxide~ 3~LaC - Lanthanum Carbide~ 2~Cerium~Lanthanide Series - Rare Earths~Grey~Solid~Ce~~Ce O~ 2 3~Klaproth~Ceres - asteroid~~3, 4~133 - 146~137 = ç K 36 h~139 = ç K 140 d~141 = á- ç 32.5 d~CeCl - Cerious Chloride~ 3~CeF - Ceric Fluoride~ 4~CeC - Cerium Carbide~ 2~CeH - Cerious Hydride~ 3~Praseodymium~Lanthanide Series - Rare Earths~Pale yellow~Solid~Pr~~PrO~ 2~Mosander~Prasinos - green~Didymos - twin~3~138 - 146~139 = á+ ç K 4.5 h~140 = á+ ç K 3.5 m~142 = á- ç 19.1 h~Pr O - Praseodymium Sesquoxide~ 2 3 (praseodymia)~PrCl - Praseodymium Chloride~ 3~PrC - Praseodymium Carbide~ 2~Pr S - Praseodymium Sulfide~ 2 3~Neodymium~Lanthanide Series - Rare Earths~Yellowish~Solid~Nd~~Nd O~ 2 3~Mosander~Neos - new~Didymos - twin~3~138 - 151~140 = ç K 3.3 d~141 = á+ ç K 2.42 h~147 = á- ç 11.6 h~Nd O - Neodymium Oxide~ 2 3 (neodymia)~NdCl - Neodymium Chloride~ 3~NdC - Neodymium Carbide~ 2~NdN - Neodymium Nitride~~Promethium~Lanthanide Series - Rare Earths~Silver~Solid~Pm~~~~Marinsky~Prometheus - stole~ fire from Heaven~3~141 - 156~146 = á- ç 2.7 h~147 = á- 2.6 y~148 = á- ç 5.3 d~~~~~~~~~Samarium~Lanthanide Series - Rare Earths~Grey-white~Solid~Sm~~Sm O~ 2 3~de Boisbaudran~Samarski - Russian~~3, 2~143 - 156~145 = ç K 410 d~147 = à 10 E+11 y~151 = á- 70 y~Sm O - Samarium Oxide~ 2 3 (samaria)~SmCl - Samarium Chloride~ 3~SmC - Samarium Carbide~ 2~SmCl - Samarious Chloride~ 2~Europium~Lanthanide Series - Rare Earths~Steel grey~Solid~Eu~~Eu O~ 2 3~Demarcay~Europe~~3, 2~145 - 159~152 = á- ç K 5.3 y~154 = á- ç 5.4 y~155 = á- ç 1.7 y~Eu O - Europium Oxide~ 2 3 (europia)~EuCl - Europium Chloride~ 3~Eu(SO ) - Europium Sulfate~ 4 3~~~Gadolinium~Lanthanide Series - Rare Earths~Silver~Solid~Gd~~Gd O~ 2 3~Marignac~Gadolinite - Finnish~ chemist Gadolin~3~149 - 161~151 = e- ç K 150 d~153 = e- ç K 236 d~159 = á- ç 18.0 h~Gd O - Gadolinium Oxide~ 2 3 (gadolinia)~GdCl - Gadolinium Chloride~ 3~Gd(NO ) - Gadolinium Nitrate~ 3 3~Gd (SO ) - Gadolinium Sulfate~ 2 4 3~Terbium~Lanthanide Series - Rare Earths~Silver~Solid~Tb~~Tb O~ 2 3~Mosander~Ytterby - Swedish~ village~3, 4~152 - 161~157 = e- ç K 4.7 d~158 = á+ 3.6 m~160 = á- ç 71 d~Tb O - Terbium Oxide~ 2 3 (terbia)~TbCl - Terbium Chloride~ 3~Tb(NO ) - Terbium Nitrate~ 3 3~Tb (SO ) - Terbium Sulfate~ 2 4 3~Dysprosium~Lanthanide Series - Rare Earths~Silver~Solid~Dy~~Dy O~ 2 3~de Boisbaudran~Dysprositos - hard to~ get at~3~154 - 166~159 = e- á+ K 134 d~165 = á- ç 2.42 h~166 = á- ç 81 h~Dy O - Dysprosium Oxide~ 2 3 (dysprosia)~DyCl - Dysprosium Chloride~ 3~DyPO - Dysprosium Orthophosphate~ 4~Dy (CO ) - Dysprosium Carbonate~ 2 3 3~Holmium~Lanthanide Series - Rare Earths~Silver~Solid~Ho~~?~~Cleve~Holmia - Stockholm~~3~160 - 166~163 = e- ç K 5.2 d~164 = á- 34.0 m~166 = á- ç >30 y~Ho O - Holmium Oxide~ 2 3~HoCl - Holmium Chloride~ 3~HoF - Holmium Fluoride~ 3~Ho(C O ) - Holmium Oxalate~ 2 4 3~Erbium~Lanthanide Series - Rare Earths~Dark grey~Solid~Er~~Er O~ 2 3~Mosander~Ytterby - Swedish~ town~3~162 - 171~163 = e- ç K 11.2 h~165 = K 10.0 h~169 = á- 9.4 d~Er O - Erbium Oxide~ 2 3 (erbia)~ErCl - Erbium Chloride~ 3~Er(NO ) - Erbium Nitrate~ 3 3~Er (SO ) - Erbium Sulfate~ 2 4 3~Thulium~Lanthanide Series - Rare Earths~Silver~Solid~Tm~~Tm O~ 2 3~Cleve~Thule - Northland~~3~166 - 171~167 = e- ç K 9.6 d~168 = á- ç K 85 d~170 = á- ç 127 d~Tm O - Thulium Oxide~ 2 3 (thulia)~TmCl - Thulium Chloride~ 3~Tm (C O ) - Thulium Oxalate~ 2 2 4 3~~~Ytterbium~Lanthanide Series - Rare Earths~Silver~Solid~Yb~~Yb O~ 2 3~Marignac~Ytterby - Swedish~ village~3, 2~167 - 177~169 = e- ç K 31.8 d~175 = á- ç 4.2 d~177 = á- ç 1.8 h~Yb O - Ytterbium Oxide~ 2 3 (ytterbia)~YbCl - Ytterbium Chloride~ 3~Yb (SeO ) - Ytterbium Selenate~ 2 4 3~Yb (SeO ) - Ytterbium Selenite~ 2 3 3~Lutetium~Lanthanide Series - Rare Earths~Silver~Solid~Lu~~LuCl~ 3~Urbain~Lutetia - ancient~ Paris name~3~170 - 179~173 = e- ç K 500 d~174 = á- ç K 165 d~176 = á- ç 10 E+10 y~LuCl - Lutetium Chloride~ 3~Lu(SO ) - Lutetium Sulfate~ 4 3~Lu O - Lutetium Oxide~ 2 3~Lu(C O ) - Lutetium Oxalate~ 2 4 3~Hafnium~4b - Titanium Family~Grey~Solid~Hf~~HfO~ 2~Coster~Hafnia - Copenhagen~~4~170 - 181~175 = e- ç K 70 d~180 = e- K 5.5 h~181 = á- ç 45 d~HfO - Hafnium Dioxide~ 2 (hafnia)~HfC - Hafnium Carbide~~HfOCl - Hafnium Oxychloride~ 2~~~Tantalum~5b - Vanadium Family~Grey-black~Solid~Ta~~TaO~ 2~Ekeberg~Tantalos - mythological~ character~5~176 - 185~179 = e- ç K 600 d~180 = á- ç K 8.15 d~182 = á- ç 115 d~Ta O - Tantalum Pentoxide~ 2 5~TaCl - Tantalum Chloride~ 5~TaC - Tantalum Carbide~ (drill points)~TaN - Tantalum Nitride~~Tungsten~6b - Chromium Family~Grey-black~Solid~W~~WO~ 3~d'Elhujar~heavy stone - Swedish~~6~176 - 188~181 = e- ç K 140 d~185 = á- ç 73 d~187 = á- ç 24.1 h~WC - Tungsten Carbide~ (carboloy)~Na WO - Sodium Tungstenate~ 2 4 (fireproofing)~H WO - Tungstic acid~ 2 4~FeWO - Ferrous Tungstenate~ 4 (ferberite)~Rhenium~7b - Manganese Family~Silver~Solid~Re~~ReO~ 2~Noddack~Rhenus - Rhine~~7, 4~182 - 188~183 = ç K 240 d~184 = e- ç K 50 d~186 = á- ç K 92.8 h~HReO - Rhenic Acid~ 4 (amphoteric)~ReCl - Rhenium Trichloride~ 3~ReF - Rhenium Hexafluoride~ 6~Re S - Rhenium Heptasulfide~ 2 7~Osmium~8b - Platinum-Metal Triad~Grey-blue~Solid~Os~~OsO~ 2~Tennant~Osme - odor~~4, 6, 8~184 - 194~185 = ç K 97 d~191 = á- ç 15.0 d~193 = e- á- ç 32 h~OsO - Osmium Tetraoxide~ 4~OsCl - Osmium Trichloride~ 3~OsF - Osmium Hexafluoride~ 6~OsSO - Osmium Sulfite~ 3~Iridium~8b - Platinum-Metal Triad~Silver-white~Solid~Ir~~IrO~ 2~Tennant~Iris - rainbow~~3, 4~187 - 194~190 = e- ç K 12.6 d~192 = á- ç 74.7 d~194 = á- ç 19.0 h~IrCl - Iridium Trichloride~ 3~Ir O - Iridium Sesquioxide~ 2 3~K IrO - Potassium Iridate~ 2 4~Ir (SO ) - Iridium Sulfate~ 2 4 3~Platinum~8b - Platinum-Metal Triad~Silver~Solid~Pt~~PtO~~Scaliger~Platinia - little~ silver~4, 2~190 - 199~191 = ç K 3.0 d~193 = e- ç K 4.3 d~195 = e- ç 3.8 d~H PtCl - Chloroplatinous acid~ 2 4~Pt(CN) - Platinous Cyanide~ 2 (fluorescent)~Na PtCl - Sodium Chloroplatinate~ 2 6~PtCl - Platinous Dichloride~ 2~Gold~1b - Coinage Metals~Yellow~Solid~Au~~Au O~ 2~Ancients~Aurum - shining dawn~~3~190 - 200~195 = ç K 185 d~196 = á- ç K 5.6 d~198 = á- ç 2.7 d~AuCl HCl - Chlorauric Acid~ 3~AuCN - Aurous Cyanide~~AuCl KCl -Gold Potassium Chloride~ 3 (photography)~(AuAg)Te - Gold Silver Telluride~ 2 (sylvanite)~Mercury~2b - Zinc Family~Silver~Liquid~Hg~~HgO~~Theophrastus~Hydrargyrum -~ liquid silver~2, 1~191 - 205~197 = ç K 65 h~199 = e- ç 44 m~203 = á- ç 46.5 d~Hg Cl - Mercurous Chloride~ 2 2 (calomel)~Hg SO - Mercurous Sulfate~ 2 4 (batteries)~Hg(CNO) - Mercuric Fulminate~ 2 (detonater)~Hg(NO ) - Mercuric Nitrate~ 3 2 (making felt hats)~Thallium~3a - Aluminum Family~Blue-white~Solid~Tl~~Tl O~ 2~Crookes~Thallos - budding twig~~1, 3~198 - 210~202 = e- ç K 11.5 d~204 = á- K 2.7 y~206 = á- 4.23 m~TlCl - Thallous Chloride~~TlOH - Thallous Hydroxide~~Tl O - Thallic Oxide~ 2 3~Tl Se - Thallous Selenide~ 2~Lead~4a - Carbon-Silicon Family~Silver-white~Solid~Pb~~PbO~~Ancients~Plumbum - Latin~~2, 4~198 - 214~203 = e- ç K 47.9 y~209 = á- 3.32 h~210 = á- ç 25 y~PbO - Plumbus Oxide~ (litharge)~Pb O - Lead Minimumoxide~ 3 4 (rust protection)~PbCrO - Lead Chromate~ 4 (chrome yellow dye)~PbSO - Lead Sulfate~ 4 (lead-acid batteries)~Bismuth~5a - Nitrogen Phosphorus Family~Silver-white~Solid~Bi~~Bi O~ 2 3~Paracelsus~Wismuth - white mass~~3, 5~197 - 215~206 = ç K 6.2 d~207 = ç K 50 y~210 = à 10 E+6 y~BiOCl - Bismuth Subchloride~ (pearl white pigment)~(BiO) CO - Bismuth Subcarbonate~ 2 3 (antiseptics)~NaBiO - Sodium Bismuthate~ 3~Bi Te - Bismuth Tritelluride~ 2 3 (tetradymite)~Polonium~6a - Chalcogens~Silver~Solid~Po~~PoO~ 2~Curie~Poland~~2, 4~200 - 218~208 = à 2.93 y~209 = à 200 y~210 = à ç 138 d~PoO - Polonium Oxide~ 2~H Po - Polonium Hydride~ 2~~~~~Astatine~7a - Halogens~?~?~?~~~~Corson~Astatos - Greek~~?~201 - 219~209 = à K 5.5 h~210 = à K 8.3 h~211 = à K 7.5 h~~~~~~~~~Radon~0 - Noble Gases~Colorless~Gas~Rn~~?~~Dorn~From Radium~~0~209 - 222~210 = à K 2.7 h~211 = à K 16 h~222 = à 3.825 d~~~~~~~~~Francium~1a - Alkali Metals~Silver~Solid~Fr~~Fr O~ 2~Perey~France~~1~211 - 223~212 = à K 19.3 m~222 = á- 14.8 m~223 = á- ç 21 m~Fr O - Francium Oxide~ 2~FrOH - Francium Hydroxide~~FrCl - Francium Chloride~~FrNO - Francium Nitrate~ 3~Radium~2a - Alkaline Earths~Silver-white~Solid~Ra~~RaO~~Curie~Radius - ray~~2~219 - 230~223 = à ç 11.2 d~225 = á- 14.8 d~226 = à ç 1620 y~RaCl - Radium Chloride~ 2~RaCO - Radium Carbonate~ 3~RaSO - Radium Sulfate~ 4~~~Actinium~Actinide Series~Silver~Solid~Ac~~Ac O~ 2 3~Debierne~Aktinos - beam or ray~~3~222 - 230~226 = á- 22 h~227 = à á- ç 27.7 y~228 = à á- ç 6.13 h~Ac O - Actinium Oxide~ 2 3~~~~~~~Thorium~Actinide Series~Grey~Solid~Th~~ThO~ 2~Berzelius~Thor - God of war~~4~223 - 234~229 = à 7340 y~230 = à ç 10 E+4 y~232 = à ç 10 E+10 y~ThCl - Thorium Chloride~ 4~Th(OH) - Thorium Hydroxide~ 4~ThSiO - Thorium Orthosilicate~ 4 (thorite)~ThO - Thorium Dioxide~ 2 (thoria)~Protactinium~Actinide Series~Grey~Solid~Pa~~PaO~ 2~Soddy~Protos - first~~5, 4~225 - 235~230 = à á- ç 17.7 d~231 = à ç 34,300 y~233 = á- ç 27.4 d~Pa O - Protactinium Pentoxide~ 2 5~PaN - Protactinium Nitride~ 2~~~~~Uranium~Actinide Series~Silver-white~Solid~U~~UO~ 3~Klaproth~Uranus planet~~6,4,3,5~227 - 240~235 = à 10 E+8 y~236 = à ç 10 E+7 y~238 = à ç 10 E+9 y~UO - Uranyl Oxide~ 3~UO (NO ) - Uranium Nitrate~ 2 3 2 (fluorescent)~Na U O - Sodium Uranate~ 2 2 7 (uranyl yellow)~UF - Uranium Hexafluoride~ 6~Neptunium~Transuranium Elements~Silvery~Solid~Np~~Np O~ 3 8~McMillan~Neptune planet~~5,3,4,6~231 - 241~234 = ç K 4.40 d~235 = à K 435 d~237 = à ç 10 E+6 y~NpF - Neptunium Trifluoride~ 3~NpCl - Neptunium Tetrachloride~ 4~NpO - Neptunium dixoide~ 2~~~Plutonium~Transuranium Elements~Silvery~Solid~Pu~~PuO~~Seaborg~Pluto planet~~4,3,5,6~232 - 243~239 = à ç 24,100 y~240 = à 6580 y~242 = à 10 E+5 y~PuCl - Plutonium Trichloride~ 3~PuF - Plutonium Tetrafluoride~ 4~PuN - Plutonium Nitride~~PuC - Plutonium Carbide~~Americium~Transuranium Elements~Silvery-white~Solid~Am~~AmO~ 2~Seaborg~Americas~~3,4,5,6~237 - 244~241 = à ç 475 y~242 = à á- 100 y~243 = à 10 e+4 y~AmF - Americium Tetrafluoride~ 4~AmCl - Americium Trichloride~ 3~~~~~Curium~Transuranium Elements~?~Solid~Cm~~Cm O~ 2 3~Seaborg~Pierre & Marie Curie~~3~238 - 249~245 = à 10 E+4 y~246 = à 3000 y~248 = à 10 E+5 y~CmF - Curium Trifluoride~ 3~~~~~~~Berkelium~Transuranium Elements~?~Solid~Bk~~?~~Seaborg~Berkeley, California~~3, 4~243 - 250~245 = à K 4.95 d~247 = à 7,000 y~249 = à á- 270 d~~~~~~~~~Californium~Transuranium Elements~?~Solid~Cf~~?~~Seaborg~California - state~~3~244 - 254~249 = à 470 y~250 = à 12 y~252 = à 2.2 y~~~~~~~~~Einsteinium~Transuranium Elements~?~Solid~Es~~?~~Ghiorso~Albert Einstein~~?~246 - 256~252 = à 140 d~253 = à 20 d~254 = à á- K 320 d~~~~~~~~~Fermium~Transuranium Elements~?~Solid~Fm~~?~~Ghiorso~Enrico Fermi~~3~250 - 256~252 = à 30 h~253 = K 1 d~255 = à 16 h~~~~~~~~~Mendelevium~Transuranium Elements~?~Solid~Md~~?~~Ghiorso~Demitri Mendeleev~~3~256~256 = K 30 m~~~~~~~~~~~Nobelium~Transuranium Elements~?~Solid~No~~?~~Fields~A. Nobel~~?~253~253 = à 10 m~~~~~~~~~~~Lawrencium~Transuranium Elements~?~Solid~Lw~~?~~Ghiorso~Ernest Lawrence~~?~257~257 = à 8 s~~~~~~~~~~~
~Atomic Weight~ The Atomic Weight is the relative weight of an atom based on Oxygen as~16. This is the weight of Avogadro's Number (a mole, 6.023 E+23) of the~atoms expressed as grams. The nearest whole number represents the number~of neutrons and protons in the nucleus. This concept was developed in 1804~by John Dalton and further explained by J.J. Berzelius in 1814.~Atomic Number~ The atomic number is the number of protons within the atomic nucleus.~In the electrically neutral atom there are the same number of electrons.~This determines the physical and chemical properties. This was first~referred to by Henry Moseley in 1912. The periodic table is arranged in~numerical order by atomic number.~Number Protons~ The number of positively charged (+1) protons in an atom's nucleus~determines the number of electrons (charged -1) which balance the atom~electrically and determines the physical and chemical characteristics.~This is referred to as the atomic number of an element. The proton was~discovered shortly after World War II by Ernest Rutherford.~Number Neutrons~ A neutron is a neutrally charged particle (0) with an atomic mass of 1~(the same as a proton). The whole number of the atomic weight of a pure~isotope less the number of protons yields the number of neutrons. The~neutron was discovered in 1930. Atoms with the same atomic number but~different numbers of neutrons are called isotopes.~Electronegativity~ Electronegativity is a measure of the atom's ability to chemically (or~electrically) attract an electron. Noble Gases have an electronegativity~of zero (since they have no affinity for electrons). This concept was~introduced by Linus Pauling in 1939. It closely resembles electron~affinity.~Oxidation State~ Sometimes referred to as the Valence, Oxidation State refers to the~number of bonds which the atom can form. The ideal situation is to form~enough bonds either gaining, losing, or sharing electrons to resemble the~configuration of a noble gas. Electrovalence refers to ionic bonding and~Covalence refers to covalent (sharing) bonding.~Physical structure~ Density is the mass per unit volume. Color refers to the elemental~substance. Their compounds can be multi-colored. The Melting and Boiling~points are measured in øC. Solids are shown with a brown symbol, Liquids~in in red, and Gases in cyan. The Abundance refers to the total percent~on Earth.~Group 0 - Noble Gases~ The Noble Gases (sometimes called Inert Gases) are characterized by a~full outer energy level of electrons. With this electron structure, Noble~Gases are very resistant forming compounds although compounds with highly~reactive halogen compounds have been formed. Atom to atom interactions are~so weak that all Noble Gases are gaseous at room temperature.~Group 1a - Alkali Metals~ Alkali Metals are characterized as being very reactive in their ability~to lose one electron and form ionic compounds which are soluble in polar~solvents like water. They are bright silver metals with low density and~high conductivity. None are found free in nature due to their reactivity.~Hydrogen, having a single proton can also behave like a halogen.~Group 2a - Alkaline Earths~ The Alkaline Earths have two easily removed electrons in their outer~energy levels. The high reactivity does not allow free elemental metals in~nature. They react with water forming basic solutions. Beryllium differs~from the others, which is not uncommon for the lowest atomic number of a~series.~Group 3a - Aluminum Family~ The common factor of the Aluminum Family is three valence electrons.~This group differs highly in their chemical and physical properties, the~low atomic numbers being non-metallic and the higher ones metallic. These~elements are generally amphoteric, meaning that in solution they can act~either as an acid or a base.~Group 4a - Carbon-Silicon Family~ This group is similar to Group 3a in that the lower atomic numbers are~non-metallic and the higher ones metallic. The non-metallic group forms~covalent bonded, sometimes large-chained molecules and the metallic group~forms ionic molecules, donating electrons to the bond. Silicon is the~second most abundant element on the Earth.~Group 5a - Nitrogen-Phosphorus Family~ This family has all but lost all metallic characteristics. Nitrogen~accounts for 79% of the atmospheric volume. This group exhibits allotropic~substances where different atomic arrangements of the same element are~found. Due to a large number (5) of outer energy level electrons, multiple~positive and negative valences are observed.~Group 6a - Chalcogens~ Chalcogens are characterized by lacking two outer energy level electrons~meaning they can easily accept two electrons in chemical reactions to form~ionic compounds. They can also share electrons with the halogens forming~covalent bonds. Oxygen is nearly 50% of the Earth's mass. The Dihydrogen~molecules of all Chalcogens except Oxygen (water) are poisonous.~Group 7a - Halogens~ Halogens are highly reactive, -1 valence elements which form diatomic~elemental compounds with covalent bonds. These non-metals are poisonous~and have low boiling points. None of these elements are found free in~nature due to their high reactivity. Fluorine is so reactive that it is~one of the few elements that will form compounds with the Noble Gases.~Group 1b - Coinage Metals~ Coinage Metals are part of the Transition Elements whose outer d-shell~electrons are full. With only one s-shell electron they exhibit a +1~Oxidation State and resemble Alkali Metals with double the ionization~potential. Alchemists referred to them as Noble Metals. High malleability~and low abundance makes these an excellent choice for coins.~Group 2b - Zinc Family~ Zinc Family elements are the last in their series of Transition Elements~having full s-shell electrons making them resemble the Alkaline Earths.~All of these elements find uses in different types of batteries. Their~densities, melting points and boiling points are all low for Transition~Elements, a trend through this series.~Group 3b - Rare Earths~ These Rare Earths are the first of the Transition Elements series which~also encompass the Lanthanide Series elements. The first three lack a 4f~electron. They are sometimes called the Fraternal Fifteen which encompass~Lanthanum through Leutetium but also Scandium and Yttrium. Uses of Rare~Earths include colored phosphors for television picture tubes.~Group 4b - Titanium Family~ The Titanium Family is characterized by being true metals with 2d and 2s~electrons in the outer shells. They readily form compounds with Oxidation~States of +4. This family is so similar that for 140 years after Zirconium~was discovered, the atomic weight was incorrect since the undiscovered~Hafnium was always mixed with the `pure' element.~Group 5b - Vanadium Family~ The Vanadium Family is characterized by being strong corrosion-resistant~metals forming distinct metallic ions in solution. They all have elevated~melting and boiling points. Although all have 5 electrons in the outer d~and s-shells, Niobium has 4d 1s electrons and the others have 3d 2s~electrons. Titanium is the only element which burns in Nitrogen. ~Group 6b - Chromium Family~ The Chromium Family is characterized by having high melting and boiling~points. As with Niobium in the Vanadium Family, Molybdenum differs from~the rest of this group by having 5d 1s electrons where the others have 4d~2s electrons. They all produce high strength, corrosion-resistant alloys~with iron (stainless steel).~Group 7b - Manganese Family~ The Manganese Family is characterized by half-filled d-shell electrons.~This provides a variety of Oxidation States (+1 to +5). Each one forms~amphoteric compounds which exhibit properties of acids and bases. Rhenium~is among the highest density and melting point elements. Technetium is~the lowest atomic number element which does not exist in nature.~Group 8b - Iron Triad~ The Iron Triad show similarities in the size of atoms and ions, thermal~properties, high melting points, and magnetic properties. Iron is the~first Transition Element with paired electrons in the inner d-orbitals~making these electrons difficult to be involved in bonding therefore the~higher Oxidation States are not apparent with the Iron Triad elements.~Group 8b - Platinum-Metal Triads~ When compared to the Iron Triad, the Platinum Metal Triads are extremely~rare. They are characterized by their high density. In fact, Osmium has~the highest density of all the elements. Most are chemically very inert.~The major use of Platinum is as a catalyst. They form a wide variety of~complexes when exposed to corrosive agents such as aqua regia.~Group Lanthanide Series - Rare Earths~ The Fraternal Fifteen as the Lanthanide Series has been called all have~partial f-orbitals (except for the first of the series-Lanthanum itself).~Though certainly not abundant, neither are they as rare as their name~indicates. Until the mid-1940's separation of the Rare Earth elements was~extremely difficult. Techniques developed with atomic energy changed this.~Group Actinide Series~ Similar to Rare Earth Actinide Series, this group has fifteen elements-~Actinium through Lawrencium. All the elements of this series are radio-~active, decaying to elements of lower atomic weight. The first four are~available in nature only due to their long half-lives or are the decay~products of long half-life elements.~Group Transuranium Elements~ Transuranium Elements are part of the Actinide Series, however they~are not available naturally. They all have very short half-lives and are~synthesized through nuclear reactions. Indeed the higher atomic numbers in~this series were discovered as by-products in hydrogen bomb tests. Most~are available only in micro-quantities so their properties are mysterious.~
~Cavendish~ Sir Henry Cavendish, an English physicist and chemist, was born October~10, 1731. He was a rich eccentric who lived in isolation but owned a major~share of the Bank of England. His work with electricity led him to the~discovery of Hydrogen in 1766. Among his publications were `Composition of~Water' (1784) and `The Density of the Earth' (1789).~Janssen~ Pierre Jules Cesar Janssen, a French astronomer, was born February 22,~1824. He was appointed the chief of the observatory at Meudon, France~where he resided for 30 years. During a solar eclipse in India in 1868,~he discovered a new solar spectral line which led to the discovery of the~element Helium. He published a solar atlas with 6000 surface photographs.~Arfvedson~ Johann Arfvedson discovered Lithium in 1817 although it wasn't isolated~until 1855 by Bunsen and Matheissen. It has been used in thermonuclear~bombs, scratch resistant glass, alloy hardeners, alkaline batteries, and~for oxygen scavenging in welding. Although never free in nature, Lithium~is found in almost all igneous rocks. The flame test is brilliant crimson.~Vauquelin~ Louis Nicholas Vauquelin discovered Chromium in 1797 and Beryllium in~1798. Vauquilin isolated Chromium in 1798. The metal is used for making~stainless steel and for surface plating to give a thin, hard surface to~polished metals. The strong, lightweight Beryllium was found in beryl and~emerald but was not isolated until 1828 by Whler and Bussy.~Gay-Lussac~ Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac, a French chemist and physicist, was born on~December 6, 1778. Gay-Lussac's major contribution to the field was his~work on combining volumes of gases which states that gases combine with~each other in simple, definite proportions. He is also credited for the~discovery of Boron in 1808.~Ancients~ The elements Carbon, Sulfur, Iron, Copper, Silver, Tin, Antimony, Gold,~and Lead were all know and used before any modern knowledge of chemical~elements. Most of these were used for bartering or war materials. Most of~them were available in their elemental form so they could be used as they~existed in nature.~Rutherford~ Daniel Rutherford discovered Nitrogen in 1772. Nitrogen, a colorless~gas, occupies about 79% of the earth's atmosphere by volume in it's quite~inert elemental form. This amount is relatively stable with Nitrogen being~produced by decaying Nitrogen containing matter and being removed through~bacterial action.~Priestley~ Joseph Priestley, an English chemist and minister, was born March 13,~1733. Even with little scientific training, Priestley discovered and~prepared Oxygen in 1774 by heating red Mercuric Oxide. He also discovered~several other gases- sulfur dioxide, silicon fluoride, and ammonia - using~his newly invented pneumatic trough, using Mercury in place of water.~Scheele~ Karl Wilhelm Scheele, a Swedish chemist, was born on December 9, 1742.~Despite his lack of university training (for which the learned societies~disregarded many of his discoveries) and his crude laboratory equipment,~Scheele discovered Fluorine in 1771, Chlorine in 1774, Molybdenum in 1778,~Tungsten (not isolated), and Copper Arsenite (Scheele's green).~Ramsay~ Sir William Ramsay, a British chemist and Nobel Prize winner, was born~October 2, 1852. Ramsay discovered or co-discovered all the inert gases.~He is credited for discovering Neon, Krypton, and Xenon in 1898, however~he jointly discovered Argon with Raleigh in 1904, isolate Radon with Gray~in 1910 and isolated Helium from the atmosphere in 1895.~Davy~ Sir Humphry Davy, an English inventor, was born on December 17, 1778.~Using electrolysis on molten metals, he discovered and isolated Sodium and~Potassium in 1807 and Calcium and Barium in 1808. He invented the miner's~safety lamp, which is named after him. He also discovered the anesthetic~properties of laughing gas and suggested it's use in dental work.~Black~ Magnesium was recognized by Black as an element in 1755 and isolated by~Sir Humphry Davy in 1808. Magnesium is a strong, lightweight metal which~is one-third lighter than Aluminum. It is used in photographic flashbulbs,~flares, incendiary bombs, lightweight alloys for airplane construction and~the Chloride is used for the electrolyte in large battery cells.~Whler~ Hans Christian Oersted perpared an impure form of Aluminum in 1825,~although Whler is generally accredited with the discovery in 1827. It is~prepared commercially by electrolysis of alumina in cryolyte. Aluminum is~the third most abundant element on the earth but, due to its reacvitivy,~is not found pure in nature.~Berzelius~ Baron Jns Jakob Berzelius, a Swedish chemist, was born August 20, 1779.~Berzelius discovered Selenium in 1817, Silicon in 1823, and Thorium in~1828. His experimental work advanced almost every branch of chemistry.~He extablished the `law of multiple proportions', the `law of reciprocal~proportions' and introduced quantitative analysis.~Brand~ Brand, an alchemist, discovered Phosphorous from urine in 1669. The~elemental form of Phosphorous exists in three allotropic forms - white or~yellow, red, and black. It is never found free in nature since it ignites~spontaneously in air, which finds use in incendiary bombs. Phosphoric acid~treats natural phosphates increasing the activity of the fertilizer.~Rayleigh~ Lord Rayleigh (John William Strutt), an English physicist, was born~November 12, 1842. Rayleigh noted that Nitrogen in air was heavier than~Nitrogen prepared chemically. This lead to the discovery of Argon in 1894~(with Sir William Ramsay). It is prepared commercially by the fractional~air distillation. It's main use is in fluorscent and incandescent bulbs.~Nilson~ Predicted by Dimitri Mendeleev in 1868 due to his work on the periodic~table and the periodicity of elements, Scandium was discovered by Lars~Fredrik Nilson, a Swedish chemist, in 1879. Scandium is associated with~the Lanthanide series although its electron structure does not conform~with that series.~Gregor~ Titanium was discovered by William Gregor in 1791. It was named by~Martin Klaproth in 1795 but was not isolated as a pure metal until 1910~when Hunter prepared it using Titanium Tetrachloride and Sodium in a steel~bomb. Titanium is the ninth most abundant element on the earth. It makes~corrosion and heat resistant alloys.~Sefstrom~ Nils Gabriel Sefstrom, and Friedrich Whler discovered Vanadium in 1830.~It was isolated by Roscoe in 1869. Though it is relatively rare, Vanadium~is found in a variety of minerals such as Vanadinite and Patronite, found~in Peru. Most of its use is in alloys which greatly increase toughness,~elasticity, and tensile strength.~Gahn~ Manganese was recognized by Scheele and Bergman but was discovered by~Johann Gottleib Gahn in 1774 by the reduction of Manganese Dioxide with~Carbon. Manganese minerals are widely distributed with oxides, silicates,~and carbonates. The mineral, Pyrolusite, has been used to color glass, a~small amount removing the green and giving it an amethyst color.~Brandt~ Cobalt was discovered by Brandt in 1735 and isolated in its pure form~by Axel Fredrick Cronstedt in 1750. Cobalt alloys are used for drill bits,~high temperature internal jet engine parts, and permanent magnets, Alnico.~Other uses for Cobalt is for paint pigments, ceramic coloring agents, and~the cancer treating radioactive Cobalt-60.~Cronstedt~ Axel Fredrick Cronstedt, a Swedish chemist, discovered Nickel in 1751.~Nickel is used in a variety of alloys. Nichrome is used in rheostats,~toasters, and hotplates. Alnico is used for permanent magnets. Permalloy~is used for ocean cables. Invar, due to its low coefficient of expansion,~is used for clock pendulums and surveyor's tapes.~Marggraf~ Recognized by Paracelsus in the sixteenth century and Johann Friedrich~Henckel in 1720, Zinc was isolated by Marggraf in 1746 by heating calamine~with charcoal. Zinc was used for making Brass for centuries before being~isolated as a pure element. Zinc is used to prevent corrosion of iron by~dipping iron in molten Zinc.~de Boisbaudran~ Lecoq de Boisbaudran, a French physicist, discovered Gallium spectro-~scopically in 1875 and isolated the pure metal by electrolysis. In 1879~he discovered Samarium from the mineral Samarskite, named in honor of a~Russian mine official. In 1886 he discovered Dysprosium by the fractional~crystallization of the Bromate.~Winkler~ Clemens Winkler, a German chemist, discovered Germanium in 1886 filling~the gap which was predicted as eka-Silicon by Dimitri Mendeleev in 1871.~The metal is prepared by reduction of the oxide using Carbon or Hydrogen.~Germanium is found in the Silver mineral Argyrodite and Germainte, an ore~containing eight per cent Germanium.~Magnus~ It is beleived that Albertus Magnus obtained the metal Arsenic in 1250.~In 1649 Schroeder published two methods for preparing it. The most common~mineral containing Arsenic is Mispickel or arsenopyrite. Although the~metal is not considered poisonous, many of its compounds are, including~Calcium and Lead Arsenates which are used in agricultural poisons.~Balard~ Antoine Jerome Balard discovered Bromine in 1826 but it was not made~in any quantity until 1860. It is prepared from sea water by displacement~with Chlorine. Bromine is the only non-metal liquid. It is a dark red~liquid which volitizes to a red vapor with a disagreeable odor resembling~Chlorine. It is useful in photography as Silver Bromide.~Bunsen~ Robert Wilhelm Emberhard von Bunsen, a German chemist, was born March~31, 1811. Using spectroscopic methods, he discovered Cesium in 1860 and~Rubidium in 1861. Bunsen invented the Carbon-Zinc battery cell in 1841.~During his work with Cacodyl Cyanide, he lost the sight in one eye. The~Bunsen burner was named after him.~Crawford~ Discovered by Crawford, a Scotchman, in 1790 and isolated by Sir Humphry~Davy in 1808 by electrolysis, Strontium is found chiefly in the minerals~Celestite and Strontianate. Strontium resembles Calcium chemically, and~its compounds produce a brilliant red color in a flame, making it useful~in fireworks.~Gadolin~ Yttrium was discovered by John Gadolin, a Swedish chemist, in 1794.~Yttrium was isolated from Yttria by Carl Gustav Mosander in 1843 when he~separated it from Erbium and Terbium. Whler obtained the free metal by~reduction of the Chloride by Potassium. Yttrium is present in nearly all~the Rare Earth minerals.~Klaproth~ Martin Heinrich Klaproth discovered Zirconium from the mineral Zircon~in 1789, Uranium from the mineral Pitchblende in 1789 and Cerium in 1803.~Zirconium was isolated in 1824 by Berzelius. Uranium was first isolated~by Eugene M. Peligot in 1841 by reducing the Chloride with Potassium.~Hillebrand and Norton isolated Cerium in 1875.~Hatchett~ Charles Hatchett, an English chemist, discovered Niobium in 1801. It~was prepared by Blomstrand in 1864 by reducing the Chloride in a heated~atmosphere of Hydrogen. The original discovery was made in an ore sent to~England from the first governer of Connecticut almost a century before.~The greatest use of Niobium is producing corrosion-free alloys.~Segr~ C. Perrier and E. Segr, an Italian-American physicist, was born on~February 1, 1905. They produced Technetium for the first time in 1937 by~bombarding Molybdenum with deuterons. Segr and Owen Chamberlain won the~Nobel prize in physics for demonstrating the existance of the antiproton.~Technetium was the first artificially produced element.~Klaus~ Carl Earnst Klaus discovered Ruthenium in 1844. This was more than a~century after the discovery of Platinum, which is a member of the same~group of element. Reasonable large supplies of Ruthenium are found in the~Ural mountains of the Soviet Union. There is very little use for this~element and the supply definately outstrips the demand.~Wollaston~ William Wollaston discovered Rhodium and Palladium in 1803. Rhodium~plating gives metals that are unaffected by oxidation, strong acids, and~strong bases. Palladium is used in the construction of delicate balances,~non-magnetic watches, and sergical instruments. It consists of 40% of all~Platinum metals used and is often a direct replacement for Platinum.~Stromeyer~ Freidrich Stromeyer and Benedict Hermann discovered Cadmium in 1817~an an impurity in Zinc Carbonate. Cadmium is used extensively in bearing~alloys with its low coefficient of friction and great fatugie resistance.~It is used in the low-melting alloy Wood's metal and as the anode in a~Nickel-Cadmium or Nicad cell.~Reich~ Ferdinand Reich and Theodore Richter discovered Indium spectroscopically~in 1863. Bearings which are electroplated with Indium are useful for its~corrosion resistance to organic acids. It is also used for jewelry and~dental alloys. Indium metal is obtained by electrolysis from baths of~complex Cyanide, Chloride, and Sulfate.~vonRichenstein~ Mller von Richenstein discovered Tellurium in 1782. It was named by~Klaproth in 1798. Tellurium is found in nature as Gold Telluride. Its~alloys give high electrical resistance. When added to glass it gives a~blue to brown coloring. Tellurium, like Sulfur, is thought to exist as an~eight-membered ring. The large atom is reluctant to form double bonds.~Courtois~ Bernard Courtois, a French saltpeter manufacturer, discovered Iodine~in 1811 from the ashes of seaweed. Gay-Lussac and Davy also isolated it~in 1813. Chile is the leading producer of Iodine from Chile saltpeter~which contains Sodium Iodate. The Iodine-containing thyroid hormone,~Thyroxin, is essential for growth control.~Coster~ Dirk Coster and George von Hevesy, Norwegian chemists, discovered the~element Hafnium in 1923 by means of Roentgen spectroscopic analysis from~the mineral Zirconia. Hafnium closely resembles Zirconium chemically and~the separation of the two is difficult. This resemblance was expected by~the Bohr theory.~Ekeberg~ Andres Gustav Ekeberg discovered Tantalum in 1802. The characteristics~of high corrosion resistance and good thermal conductivity make it useful~for internal body repair using Tantalum splints, screws, nails, plates,~etc. Tantalum Carbide is used for drill points. Tantalum is used as the~filament in rough use light bulbs. Rhodesia produces 70% of the supply.~d'Elhujar~ Recognized and named by Karl Wilhelm Scheele in 1781, Tungsten was~discovered by Fausto d'Elhujar and Jean Jose in 1783. Tungsten, Wolfram,~has the highest melting point of any metal making it ideal for filaments~in light bulbs, X-Ray targets and electrical contacts. Steel alloys for~high speed cutting tools and armor plating account for 90% of its use.~Noddack~ Walter Noddack, Ida Tacke, and Otto Berg discovered Rhenium in 1925 by~Roentgen spectroscopic methods in the minerals Columbite, Tantalite, and~Wolframite. Rather than being associated chemically with Manganese as one~would expect, Rhenium is found to be chemically similar to Molybdenum.~It is used for Hydrogenation catalysis.~Tennant~ Smithson Tennant discovered Osmium and Iridium in the residue left when~crude Platinum was dissolved in Aqua Regia in 1803. Osmium is the most~dense element followed by Iridium. The very hard Osmiridium alloy is used~in pin points and very fine compass bearings. The standard measure of~length, the meter, is 90% Platinum and 10% Iridium.~Scaliger~ Although ancient artifacts made of pure Platinum have been found, the~metal was not known until 1557 when discovered by the Italian poet Julius~Caesar Scaliger. Platinum has the lowest coefficient of expansion of the~commercial metals. Platinum and its alloys are used in spark plugs, radar~parts and as a catalyst in lead-free gas catalytic converters.~Theophrastus~ Mercury was found in Egyptian tombs of 1500 B.C. It was recorded as~being discovered in China by Theophrastus in 300 B.C. Mercury, sometimes~called Quicksilver, is the only metal that is liquid at room temperature.~Its regular coefficient of expansion make it ideal for thermometers and~barometers. Alloys with Gold, called Amalgams, are used in dentistry.~Crookes~ William Crookes and A. Lami discovered Thallium spectroscopically in~1861. Thallium chemically resembles both the Alkali Metals and the Group~III elements. For this reason it has sometimes been referred to as the~`paradoxical metal' and the `birs-beast metal. The salts of Thallium are~poisonous and are used to control rodents such as squirrels.~Paracelsus~ Although known to the ancients, Bismuth was discovered by Paracelsus~in 1546. The bulk of the production of Bismuth is as the by-product of~refining Copper and Lead ores. The pharmaceutical industry uses 40% of~its production to treat skin injuries and intestinal disorders. Wood's~metal, 50% Bismuth, is a low melting alloy.~Curie~ Marie Sklodowska and Pierre Curie, Polish and French physicists,~discovered Polonium and Radium from Pitchblende in 1898 while searching~for the cause its radioactivity. Neither element has a stable isotope. ~Polonium release so much energy that half a gram will melt itself. Radium~is a luminous element used in luminous paints and watch dials.~Corson~ Dale Raymond Corson, Kenneth R. MacKenzie, and Elilio Gina Segr~synthesized Astatine, the only Halogen without a stable isotope, in 1940~by bombarding Bismuth with a high energy Alpha particle. Astatine was~predicted by Dimitri Mendeleev in 1869 through his work in periodicity.~Although only small amounts are available, Astatine behaves as predicted.~Dorn~ Friedrich Ernst Dorn discovered Radon in 1900. Radon is the most dense~gaseous element. Since there are no stable isotopes of Radon, however it~is continually being produced as a decay product of Radium. Therefore any~mineral containing Radium will have gaseous Radon entrapped. It is used~for cancer treatment, since it has the radiation but no chemical effects.~Mosander~ Carl Gustav Mosander discovered Lanthanum in 1839 and Erbium, Neodymium,~Terbium and Praseodymium in 1843 from the mineral Cerite. He mistakenly~called the mixture of Neodymium and Praseodymium the element Didymium,~which was thought to be an element by itself until it was separated by~von Welsbach in 1885.~Marinsky~ J. A. Marinsky, Lawrence Elgin Glendenin and C. D. Coryell discovered~Promethium in their work with fissionable Uranium. It was the product of~neutron bombardment of Praseodymium. Promethium is the only element of~the Rare Earths that has no stable isotope. The name from Greek mythology~was derived from Prometheus who stole fire from heaven and gave it to man.~Demarcay~ Eugene Demarcay discovered Europium in 1896. Europium is named after~the continent Europe. Its high neutron cross-section makes it useful for~nuclear reactor control rods. In 1964, Europium-activated phosphors were~discovered that gave red phosphors four times the brightness as other red~phosphor being used in color televisions.~Marignac~ Jean Charles Marignac discovered Gadolinium in 1880 and Ytterbium in~1878. Gadolinium, which belongs to the Yttrium group of the Rare Earths,~was separated by Lecoq de Boisbaudran in 1886. Ytterbium was further~separated into Ytterbium and Lutetium in 1908 by von Welsbach. The best~source are the minerals Gadolinite, Xenotime, and Polycrase.~Cleve~ Per Theodore Cleve discovered Thullium in 1879 and, along with J. L.~Soret, discovered Holmium while working on erbia earth in 1879. Both are~Rare Earths containing highly-colored salts. Holmium is the Latinized~word for Stockholm (Holmia) and Thullium is named for Thule, the ancient~name of Scandinavia.~Urbain~ G. Urbain and C. A. von Welsbach discovered Lutetium in 1907. Both~described a process to isolate two elements from Marignac's Ytterbium -~Ytterbium itself and Lutetium. Both elements occur in very small amounts~in all minerals containing Yttrium. It is sometimes called Casiopeium by~the Germans but was named after the ancient name of Paris, Lutetia.~Perey~ Marguerite Perey, a French Physicist, discovered Francium in 1939.~Francium is the natural decay product of Actinium. As an Alkali metal,~it has all the expected chemical properties even though it is the last in~the series and has the highest equivalent weight of any element. It was~named after the country France.~Debierne~ Andr Debierne discovered Actinium in 1899 and independently by Fritz~Giesel in 1902. Actinium was named from the Greek word `aktinos' meaning~beam or ray, referring to its radioactive disintegration through alpha~and beta emission to Pb-207, a stable isotope. Actinium is synthesized by~irradiation of Radium in nuclear reactors.~Soddy~ Frederick Soddy, John Cranston, Otto Hahn and Lise Meitner discovered~Protactinium in 1917 (two separate teams). The name comes from the Greek~word `protos' meaning first since it is the mother substance of Actinium~through the loss of an alpha particle. Protactinium can be synthesized~by bombarding Thorium-230 with neutrons.~McMillan~ Edwin M. McMillan and Philip H. Abelson produced Neptunium by bombarding~Uranium with Cyclotron-produced neutrons in 1940. Trace amounts of the~element is available in nature by the radioactive decay of Uranium ores.~Large quantities are currently being produced as the by-product of the~production of Plutonium in nuclear reactors.~Seaborg~ Glenn Theodore Seaborg, an American chemist, was involved in the~discovery of most of the Transuranium elements. Specifically Plutonium in~1940, Curium in 1944, Americium in 1945, Berkelium and Californium in~1950, Fermium in 1953, Mendelevium in 1955, and Niobium in 1958. He was~involved in the Manhattan project in World War II.~Ghiorso~ A. Ghiorso was involved in the discovery of most of the Transuranium~elements. Specifically, he was involved with the discovery of every~Transuranium element except Neptunium and Plutonium. Most of the work he~was involved with stemmed from the Thermonuclear (Hydrogen) bomb tests in~the Pacific islands after World War II.~Fields~ P. R. Fields and coworkers discovered Nobelium at the Nobel Institute~cyclotron at Stockholm in 1957 as the result of Carbon-13 bombardment of~Californium. The isotope produced was Nobelium-253 which has a half-life~of about ten minutes. It was also prepared by Seaborg and Ghiorso in 1958~by bombarding Curium-246 with Carbon-12 giving a three second half-life.~
~Hydrogen~2 H + O --> 2 H O H SO + 2 NaOH --> 2 H O + Na SO~ 2 2 2 2 4 2 2 4~~Zn + 2 HCl --> ZnCl + H H O + C --> CO + H~ 2 2 2 2~Helium~~~ No Known Chemical Reactions~~~Neon~~~ No Known Stable Compounds~~~Argon~~ No Known Stable Compounds~~Ar + BF --> ArBF --- very unstable complex~ 3 3~Krypton~~ Very difficult to form compounds~~Kr + F --> KrF 2 NaF + Kr --> KrF + 2 Na~ 2 2 2~Xenon~5 Xe + 6 VF --> 5 XeF + 6 V 5 Xe + 2 TaF --> 5 XeF + 2 Ta~ 5 6 5 2~~8 SbF + 10 O + 10 Xe --> 10 XeOF + 8 Sb~ 5 2 4~Radon~~ Very difficult to work with due to high radioactivity.~ Many compounds should be formed due to its ionization potential.~~~Lithium~2 Li + 2 H O --> 2 LiOH + H 2 Li + 2 NH --> 2 LiNH + H~ 2 2 3 2 2~~2 Li + Cl --> 2 LiCl 2 Li + 3 N --> 2 LiN~ 2 2 3~Sodium~2 Na + 2 H O --> 2 NaOH + H 4 Na + O --> 2 Na O~ 2 2 2 2~~2 Na + Cl --> 2 NaCl 3 Na + AlCl --> Al + 3 NaCl~ 2 3~Potassium~2 K + 2 H O --> 2 KOH + H 2 K + Cl --> 2 KCl~ 2 2 2~~4 K + O --> 2 K O KCl + NaNO --> NaCl + KNO~ 2 2 3 3~Rubidium~2 Rb + 2 H O --> 2 RbOH + H 2 Rb + 2 NH --> 2 RbNH + H~ 2 2 3 2 2~~2 Rb + Cl --> 2 RbCl 4 Rb + O --> 2 Rb O~ 2 2 2~Cesium~2 Cs + 2 H O --> 2 CsOH + H 2 Cs + 2 NH --> 2 CsNH + H~ 2 2 3 2 2~~2 Cs + Cl --> 2 CsCl 4 Cs + O --> 2 Cs O~ 2 2 2~Francium~Fr + 2 H O --> 2 FrOH + H 2 Fr + Cl --> 2 FrCl~ 2 2 2~~Due to the short half-life of Francium 21 minutes, little is known about~its ability to form compounds other than normal alkali earth properties.~Beryllium~2 Be + O --> 2 BeO Be + 2 HCl -- BeCl + H~ 2 2 2~~Be + 2 H O --> Be(OH) + H BeCO --> BeO + CO~ 2 2 2 3 2~Magnesium~2 Mg + O --> 2 MgO Mg + 2 HCl --> MgCl + H~ 2 2 2~~Mg + 2 H O --> Mg(OH) + H MgO + CO --> MgCO~ 2 2 2 2 3~Calcium~2 Ca + O --> 2 CaO Ca + 2 HNO --> Ca(NO ) + H~ 2 3 3 2 2~~Ca + 2 H O --> Ca(OH) + H CaO + CO --> CaCO~ 2 2 2 2 3~Strontium~2 Sr + O --> 2 SrO Sr + H SO --> SrSO + H~ 2 2 4 4 2~~Sr + 2 H O --> Sr(OH) + H SrO + CO --> SrCO~ 2 2 2 2 3~Barium~2 Ba + O --> 2 BaO Ba + 2 HCl --> BaCl + H~ 2 2 2~~Ba + 2 H O --> Ba(OH) + H BaO + CO --> BaCO~ 2 2 2 2 3~Radium~2 Ra + O --> 2 RaO Ra + 2 HCl --> RaCl + H~ 2 2 2~~Ra + 2 H O --> Ra(OH) + H RaO + CO --> RaCO~ 2 2 2 2 3~Boron~4 B + 6 H O --> 4 H BO + 3 O 2 BBr + 3 H --> 2 B + 6 HBr~ 2 3 3 2 3 2~~B O + 6 Mg --> Mg B + 3 MgO 2 B + 3 Cl --> 2 BCl~ 2 3 3 2 2 3~Aluminum~4 Al + 6 H O --> 4 Al(OH) + 3 O 2 Al + 6 HCl --> 2 AlCl + 3 H~ 2 3 2 3 2~~2 Al O --> 4 Al + 3 O 2 Al + 3 F --> 2 AlF~ 2 3 2 2 3~Gallium~4 Ga + 3 O --> 2 Ga O Ga + Cl --> GaCl~ 2 2 3 2 2~~6 Ga + 3 H --> 3 Ga H Ga + 2 HCl --> GaCl + H~ 2 2 6 2 2~Indium~2 In + 2 HCl --> 2 InCl + H In + Br --> InBr~ 2 2 2~~2 In + 3 F --> 2 InF 2 In + 6 H O --> 2 In(OH) + 3 H~ 2 3 2 3 2~Thallium~2 Tl + Br --> 2 TlBr 4 Tl + 3 O --> 2 Tl O~ 2 2 2 3~~2 Tl + 2 H O --> 2 TlOH + H 2 Tl + 2 HCl --> 2 TlCl + H~ 2 2 2~Carbon~C + O --> CO CH + 2 O --> CO + 2 H O~ 2 2 4 2 2 2~~C + 2 Cl --> CCl 4 C + S --> 4 CS~ 2 4 8 2~Silicon~SiBr + 2 H --> Si + 4 HBr SiCl --> SiCl + Cl~ 4 2 4 2 2~~SiF + H --> H SiF SiO + C --> SiC + O~ 4 2 2 4 2 2~Germanium~Ge + O --> GeO 2 Ge + 3 H --> Ge H~ 2 2 2 2 6~~Ge + 4 HCl --> GeCl + 2 H 3 Ge + 2 N --> Ge N~ 4 2 2 3 4~Tin~Sn + O --> SnO Sn(OH) --> SnO + H O~ 2 2 2 2~~Sn(OH) + 2 HCl --> 2 H O + SnCl H SnO + 2 KOH --> 2 H O + K SnO~ 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2~Lead~Pb + 2 HNO --> Pb(OH) + 2 NO 2 PbO --> 2 PbO + O~ 3 2 2 2 2~~2 PbO + C --> 2 Pb + CO Pb(NO ) + K CrO --> 2 KNO + PbCrO~ 2 3 2 2 4 3 4~Nitrogen~NH NO --> N O + 2 H O NO + NO --> N O~ 4 3 2 2 2 2 3~~2 NO --> N O 3 H + N --> 2 NH~ 2 2 4 2 2 3~Phosphorus~PCl + 3 H O --> P(OH) + 3 HCl 3 NaH PO --> Na (PO ) + 3 H O~ 3 2 3 2 4 3 3 3 2~~2 Ca (PO ) + 6 SiO + 10 C --> 6 CaSiO + 10 CO + P~ 3 4 2 2 3 4~Arsenic~4 As + 3 O --> 2 As O 2 As + 3 Cl --> 2 AsCl~ 2 2 3 2 3~~16 As + 3 S --> 8 As S 6 As + 4 HNO --> 3 As O + 2 H~ 8 2 3 3 2 4 2~Antimony~6 Sb + 4 HNO --> 3 Sb O + 2 H 4 Sb + 3 O --> Sb O~ 3 2 4 2 2 4 6~~SbCl + 3 H O --> Sb(OH) + 3 HCl 2 Sb O + O --> 2 Sb O~ 3 2 3 2 3 2 2 4~Bismuth~4 Bi + 3 O --> 2 Bi O 16 Bi + 3 S --> 8 Bi S~ 2 2 3 8 2 3~~2 Bi + 3 H --> 2 BiH BiCl + H O --> HCl + Bi(OH)Cl~ 2 3 3 2 2~Oxygen~3 O --> 2 O Hg + O --> HgO + O~ 2 3 3 2~~4 Na + O --> 2 Na O Mg + O --> 2 MgO~ 2 2 2~Sulfur~PCl + SO --> SOCl + POCl S + 8 O --> 8 SO~ 5 2 2 3 8 2 2~~H S O + H O --> H SO + H SO S + 16 Na --> 8 Na S~ 2 2 8 2 2 4 2 5 8 2~Selenium~Se + SO --> SeSO 2 H SeO --> 2 H SeO + O~ 3 3 2 4 2 3 2~~PCl + SeO --> SeOCl + POCl Se + O --> SeO~ 5 2 2 3 2 2~Tellurium~Te + SO --> TeSO H TeO --> TeO + 3 H O~ 3 3 6 6 3 2~~Te + O --> TeO PCl + TeO --> TeOCl + POCl~ 2 2 5 2 2 3~Polonium~Po + O --> PoO H + Po --> H Po~ 2 2 2 2~~ Only small amounts of this highly radioactive element are~ available so little is known about its compounds.~Fluorine~CaF + H SO --> 2 HF + CaSO H + F --> 2 HF~ 2 2 4 4 2 2~~SiO + 2 F --> SiF + O 2 Na + F --> 2 NaF~ 2 2 4 2 2~Chlorine~2 NaCl + H SO --> Na SO + 2 HCl 2 NaCl + Br --> Cl + 2 NaBr~ 2 4 2 4 2 2~~4 HCl + MnO --> MnCl + 2 H O + Cl CCl + 2 BeO --> 2 BeCl + CO~ 2 2 2 2 4 2 2~Bromine~2 NaBr + I --> Br + 2 NaI 4 HBr + MnO --> MnBr + 2 H O + Br~ 2 2 2 2 2 2~~2 Na + Br --> 2 NaBr PBr + 3 H O --> H (HPO ) + 3 HBr~ 2 3 2 2 3~Iodine~2 K + I --> 2 KI 4 HI + MnO --> MnI + 2 H O + I~ 2 2 2 2 2~~AgNO + NaI --> AgI + NaNO PI + 3 H O --> H (HPO ) + 3 HI~ 3 3 3 2 2 3~Astatine~~ Astatine is available only in very small quantities~ due to its radioactivity. Chemically it reacts as~ the other Halogens.~~Titanium~TiO + 2 Cl --> TiCl + O 2 Mg + TiCl --> 2 MgCl + Ti~ 2 2 4 2 4 2~~2 TiS + H --> Ti S + H S TiCl + 4 HF --> TiF + 4 HCl~ 2 2 2 3 2 4 4~Zirconium~Zr + 2 I --> ZrI ZrO + 2 KOH --> K ZrO + H O~ 2 4 2 2 3 2~~Zr + O --> ZrO 2 ZrS + H --> Zr S + H S~ 2 2 2 2 2 3 2~Hafnium~Hf + O --> HfO HfO + 2 NaOH --> Na HfO + H O~ 2 2 2 2 3 2~~Hf + 2 Cl --> HfCl 2 HfS + H --> Hf S + H S~ 2 4 2 2 2 3 2~Vanadium~2 NH VO --> V O + 2 NH + H O V O + 6 NaOH --> 2 Na VO + 3 H O~ 4 3 2 5 3 2 2 5 3 4 2~~HVO + NH Cl --> NH VO + HCl VCl + 3 HF --> VF + 3 HCl~ 3 4 4 3 3 3~Niobium~2 Nb + 5 Br --> 2 NbBr 8 Nb S + 40 Cl --> 16 NbCl + 5 S~ 2 5 2 5 2 5 8~~Nb + O --> NbO NbCl + 5 HF --> NbF + 5 HCl~ 2 2 5 5~Tantalum~Ta + C --> TaC TaCl + 5 HF --> TaF + 5 HCl~ 5 5~~Ta + O --> TaO 4 Ta + S --> 4 TaS~ 2 2 8 2~Chromium~2 Cr + 3 Cl --> 2 CrCl 2 KHCrO + 2 HCl --> H Cr O + H O + 2 KCl~ 2 3 4 2 2 7 2~~Cr O + 2 Al --> Al O + 2 Cr Fe(CrO ) + 4 C --> Fe + 2 Cr + 4 CO~ 2 3 2 3 2 2~Molybdenum~MoO + 2 Al --> Al O + Mo MoO + CaCO --> CaMoO + O~ 3 2 3 3 3 4 2~~MoO + H --> H O + MoO 4 MoS + 6 O --> 4 MoO + S~ 3 2 2 2 2 2 3 8~Tungsten~WO + 2 NaOH --> Na WO + H H WO --> WO + H O~ 3 2 4 2 2 4 3 2~~WO + 2 Al --> Al O + W WO + H --> WO + H O~ 3 2 3 3 2 2 2~Manganese~8 Mn + S --> 8 MnS MnO + 2 C --> Mn + 2 CO~ 8 2~~10 Mn + N --> 2 MnN 2 KOH + MnO --> K MnO + H O~ 2 3 2 2 3 2~Technetium~16 Tc + 7 S --> 8 Tc S Tc O + 2 NH OH --> 2 NH TcO + H O~ 8 2 7 2 7 4 4 4 2~~ Only a few compounds have been formed with Technetium since~ it is only available synthetically through radioactive decay.~Rhenium~Re + 2 F --> ReF ReCl + O --> ReOCl + ClO~ 2 4 5 2 4~~2 Re + 3 O --> 2 ReO 7 ReO --> 2 Re O + 3 Re~ 2 3 2 2 7~Iron~4 Fe + 3 O --> 2 Fe O FeCl + 2 NaOH --> 2 NaCl + Fe(OH)~ 2 2 3 2 2~~2 Fe + 3 F --> 2 FeF Fe(OH) + H --> FeO + H O~ 2 3 2 2 2~Cobalt~Co + F --> CoF CoCl + 2 NaOH --> 2 NaCl + Co(OH)~ 2 2 2 2~~CoCO --> CoO + CO 3 CoO + 2 Al --> Al O + 3 Co~ 3 2 2 3~Nickel~NiCO --> NiO + CO NiO + C --> Ni + CO~ 3 2~~Ni + Cl --> NiCl Ni(OH) --> NiO + H O~ 2 2 2 2~Ruthenium~2 Ru + 3 Cl --> 2 RuCl Na RuO + Cl --> RuO + 2 NaCl~ 2 3 2 4 2 4~~2 Ru + 3 F --> 2 RuF 4 Ru + S --> 4 RuS~ 2 3 8 2~Rhodium~2 Rh + 3 Cl --> 2 RhCl 4 Rh + S --> 4 RhS~ 2 3 8 2~~4 Rh + O --> 2 Rh O 2 Rh + 3 F --> 2 RhF~ 2 2 2 3~Palladium~Pd + Cl --> PdCl Pd + 2 HNO --> Pd(NO ) + H~ 2 2 3 3 2 2~~2 Pd + O --> 2 PdO PdCl + 2 HCl --> H PdCl~ 2 2 2 4~Osmium~Os + 2 O --> OsO OsO --> OsO + O~ 2 4 4 2 2~~Os + Cl --> OsCl Os + 2 F --> OsF~ 2 2 2 4~Iridium~Ir + Cl --> IrCl IrCl + 3 KCl --> K IrCl~ 2 2 3 3 6~~Ir + 2 F --> IrF Ir + 2 NaCl + 2 Cl --> Na IrCl~ 2 4 2 2 6~Platinum~2 Pt + 3 Cl --> 2 PtCl PtCl + 2 KCl --> K PtCl~ 2 3 2 2 4~~Pt + 2 F --> PtCl Pt + 2 KCl + Cl --> K PtCl~ 2 4 2 2 6~Copper~2 Cu + O --> 2 CuO 2 CuI --> 2 CuI + I~ 2 2 2~~Cu + H S --> CuS + H 2 CuO + 2 KO --> 2 KCuO + O~ 2 2 2 2 2~Silver~2 Ag + H S --> Ag S + H 4 Ag + O --> 2 Ag O~ 2 2 2 2 2~~2 Ag + I --> 2 AgI AgNO + NaCl --> AgCl + NaNO~ 2 3 3~Gold~4 Au + 8 KCN + O + 2 H O --> 4 KAu(CN) + 4 KOH~ 2 2 2~~AuF + HF + 3 H O --> Au(OH) + 4 HF~ 3 2 3~Zinc~ZnO + C --> Zn + CO Zn + 2 HCl --> ZnCl + H~ 2 2~~2 Zn + O --> 2 ZnO ZnI + 2 LiH --> ZnH + 2 LiI~ 2 2 2~Cadmium~Cd + 2 HCl --> CdCl + H 2 Cd + O --> 2 CdO~ 2 2 2~~Cd + Cl --> CdCl 2 NaCl + CdCl --> Na CdCl~ 2 2 2 2 4~Mercury~2 HgS + 3 O --> 2 HgO + 2 SO Hg + 2 HNO --> Hg(NO ) + H~ 2 2 3 3 2 2~~Hg + HgCl --> Hg Cl HgCl + NH --> Hg(NH ) Cl~ 2 2 2 2 3 3 2~Scandium~2 Sc + 3 Cl --> 2 ScCl 2 ScCl + 3 Na SO --> Sc (SO ) + 6 NaCl~ 2 3 3 2 4 2 4 3~~ScCl + Na Si O --> ScSi O + 3 NaCl~ 3 2 2 7 2 7~Yttrium~4 Y + 3 O --> 2 Y O Y O + 2 Al --> Al O + 2 Y~ 2 2 3 2 3 2 3~~2 Y + 3 Br --> 2 YBr Y O + 3 C --> 2 Y + 3 CO~ 2 3 2 3~Lanthanum~2 LaCl + 3 H C O --> La(C O ) + 6 HCl~ 3 2 2 4 2 4 3~~2 LaF + 3 Ca --> 2 La + 3 CaF 2 La(C O ) + 3 O --> 2 La O + 12 CO~ 3 3 2 4 3 2 2 3 2~Cerium~3 Ce(NO ) + KMnO + 4 H O --> 3 CeO + MnO + KNO + 8 HNO~ 3 3 4 2 2 2 3 3~~2 CeCl + 3 H C O --> Ce(C O ) + 6 HCl~ 3 2 2 4 2 4 3~Praseodymium~2 PrCl + 3 H C O --> Pr(C O ) + 6 HCl~ 3 2 2 4 2 4 3~~2 PrF + 3 Ca --> 2 Pr + 3 CaF 2 Pr(C O ) + 3 O --> 2 Pr O + 12 CO~ 3 3 2 4 3 2 2 3 2~Neodymium~2 NdCl + 3 H C O --> Nd(C O ) + 6 HCl~ 3 2 2 4 2 4 3~~2 NdF + 3 Ca --> 2 Nd + 3 CaF 2 Nd(C O ) + 3 O --> 2 Nd O + 12 CO~ 3 3 2 4 3 2 2 3 2~Promethium~2 PmCl + 3 H C O --> Pm(C O ) + 6 HCl~ 3 2 2 4 2 4 3~~2 PmF + 3 Ca --> 2 Pm + 3 CaF 2 Pm(C O ) + 3 O --> 2 Pm O + 12 CO~ 3 3 2 4 3 2 2 3 2~Samarium~4 Sm + 3 O --> 2 Sm O Sm O + 2 La --> La O + 2 Sm~ 2 2 3 2 3 2 3~~2 SmF + 3 Ca --> 2 Sm + 3 CaF 2 Sm(C O ) + 3 O --> 2 Sm O + 12 CO~ 3 3 2 4 3 2 2 3 2~Europium~2 Eu(NO ) + Zn --> 2 Eu(NO ) + Zn(NO )~ 3 3 3 2 3 2~~4 Eu + 3 O --> 2 Eu O Eu(NO ) + H SO --> EuSO + 2 HNO~ 2 2 3 3 2 2 4 4 3~Gadolinium~4 Gd + 3 O --> 2 Gd O 2 GdCl + 3 H C O --> Gd(C O ) + 6 HCl~ 2 2 3 3 2 2 4 2 4 3~~2 GdF + 3 Ca --> 2 Gd + 3 CaF 2 Gd(C O ) + 3 O --> 2 Gd O + 12 CO~ 3 3 2 4 3 2 2 3 2~Terbium~4 Tb + 3 O --> 2 Tb O 2 TbCl + 3 H C O --> Tb(C O ) + 6 HCl~ 2 2 3 3 2 2 4 2 4 3~~2 TbF + 3 Ca --> 2 Tb + 3 CaF 2 Tb(C O ) + 3 O --> 2 Tb O + 12 CO~ 3 3 2 4 3 2 2 3 2~Dysprosium~4 Dy + 3 O --> 2 Dy O 2 DyCl + 3 H C O --> Dy(C O ) + 6 HCl~ 2 2 3 3 2 2 4 2 4 3~~2 DyF + 3 Ca --> 2 Dy + 3 CaF 2 Dy(C O ) + 3 O --> 2 Dy O + 12 CO~ 3 3 2 4 3 2 2 3 2~Holmium~4 Ho + 3 O --> 2 Ho O 2 HoCl + 3 H C O --> Ho(C O ) + 6 HCl~ 2 2 3 3 2 2 4 2 4 3~~2 HoF + 3 Ca --> 2 Ho + 3 CaF 2 Ho(C O ) + 3 O --> 2 Ho O + 12 CO~ 3 3 2 4 3 2 2 3 2~Erbium~4 Er + 3 O --> 2 Er O 2 ErCl + 3 H C O --> Er(C O ) + 6 HCl~ 2 2 3 3 2 2 4 2 4 3~~2 ErF + 3 Ca --> 2 Er + 3 CaF 2 Er(C O ) + 3 O --> 2 Er O + 12 CO~ 3 3 2 4 3 2 2 3 2~Thulium~4 Tm + 3 O --> 2 Tm O 2 TmCl + 3 H C O --> Tm(C O ) + 6 HCl~ 2 2 3 3 2 2 4 2 4 3~~2 TmF + 3 Ca --> 2 Tm + 3 CaF 2 Tm(C O ) + 3 O --> 2 Tm O + 12 CO~ 3 3 2 4 3 2 2 3 2~Ytterbium~4 Yb + 3 O --> 2 Yb O 2 YbCl + 3 H C O --> Yb(C O ) + 6 HCl~ 2 2 3 3 2 2 4 2 4 3~~2 YbF + 3 Ca --> 2 Yb + 3 CaF 2 Yb(C O ) + 3 O --> 2 Yb O + 12 CO~ 3 3 2 4 3 2 2 3 2~Lutetium~4 Lu + 3 O --> 2 Lu O 2 LuCl + 3 H C O --> Lu(C O ) + 6 HCl~ 2 2 3 3 2 2 4 2 4 3~~2 LuF + 3 Ca --> 2 Lu + 3 CaF 2 Lu(C O ) + 3 O --> 2 Lu O + 12 CO~ 3 3 2 4 3 2 2 3 2~Actinium~2 AcCl + 3 H C O --> Ac(C O ) + 6 HCl~ 3 2 2 4 2 4 3~~2 AcF + 3 Ca --> 2 Ac + 3 CaF 2 Ac(C O ) + 3 O --> 2 Ac O + 12 CO~ 3 3 2 4 3 2 2 3 2~Thorium~Th + O --> ThO Th + 4 HNO --> Th(NO ) + H~ 2 2 3 3 4 2~~Th + 2 Cl --> ThCl 2 Th + 3 F --> 2 ThF~ 2 4 2 3~Protactinium~Pa + O --> PaO Pa O + C --> 2 PaO + CO~ 2 2 2 5 2~~Pa + 2 Cl --> PaCl Pa + N --> PaN~ 2 4 2 2~Uranium~UO + 4 HF --> UF + 2 H O UF + Al --> UF + AlF~ 2 4 2 4 3~~UF + F --> UF U + 2 HNO --> U(NO ) + H~ 4 2 6 3 3 2 2~Neptunium~2 Np + 3 F --> 2 NpF Np + 2 F --> NpF~ 2 3 2 4~~Np + O --> NpO~ 2 2~Plutonium~2 Pu + 3 Cl --> 2 PuCl Pu + 2 F --> PuF~ 2 3 2 4~~2 Pu + N --> 2 PuN Pu + C --> PuC~ 2~Americium~2 Am + 3 Cl --> 2 AmCl Am + 2 F --> AmF~ 2 3 2 4~~~~Curium~~ So much is known about the Synthetic Transuranium Element's~ nuclear characteristics, however so little of each element~ is made available at any time that compound preparation is~ extremely difficult.~Berkelium~~ So much is known about the Synthetic Transuranium Element's~ nuclear characteristics, however so little of each element~ is made available at any time that compound preparation is~ extremely difficult.~Californium~~ So much is known about the Synthetic Transuranium Element's~ nuclear characteristics, however so little of each element~ is made available at any time that compound preparation is~ extremely difficult.~Einsteinium~~ So much is known about the Synthetic Transuranium Element's~ nuclear characteristics, however so little of each element~ is made available at any time that compound preparation is~ extremely difficult.~Fermium~~ So much is known about the Synthetic Transuranium Element's~ nuclear characteristics, however so little of each element~ is made available at any time that compound preparation is~ extremely difficult.~Mendelevium~~ So much is known about the Synthetic Transuranium Element's~ nuclear characteristics, however so little of each element~ is made available at any time that compound preparation is~ extremely difficult.~Nobelium~~ So much is known about the Synthetic Transuranium Element's~ nuclear characteristics, however so little of each element~ is made available at any time that compound preparation is~ extremely difficult.~Lawrencium~~ So much is known about the Synthetic Transuranium Element's~ nuclear characteristics, however so little of each element~ is made available at any time that compound preparation is~ extremely difficult.~
~Hydrogen~~ Tritium --> Helium Deuterium --> Helium + neutron~ 3 _ 3 2 2 3 1~ H --> á + He H + H --> He + n +3.25 MeV~1 2 1 1 2 0~Helium~~Helium+Deuterium --> Helium+Hydrogen Helium --> Lithium + beta~ 3 2 4 1 6 6 0~ He + H --> He + H +18.3 MeV He --> Li + á +3.7 MeV~ 2 1 2 1 2 3 -1~Lithium~~Lithium + Deuterium --> Helium Lithium --> Beryllium + beta~ 6 2 4 8 8 0~ Li + H --> 2 He +22.4 MeV Li --> Be + á +12.0 MeV~ 3 1 2 3 4 -1~Beryllium~~Beryllium+Helium --> Carbon+neutron Beryllium --> Boron + beta~ 9 4 12 1 10 10 0~ Be + He --> C + n Be --> B + á +0.56 MeV~ 4 2 6 0 4 5 -1~Boron~~Boron+Deuterium --> Boron+Hydrogen Boron --> Beryllium + positron~ 10 2 11 1 8 8 0~ B + H --> B + H B --> Be + á~ 5 1 5 1 5 4 1~Carbon~~Carbon + Hydrogen --> Nitrogen Carbon --> Nitrogen + beta~ 12 1 13 14 14 0~ C + H --> N C --> N + á +0.155 MeV~ 6 1 7 6 7 -1~Nitrogen~~Nitrogen+Helium --> Oxygen+Hydrogen Nitrogen --> Oxygen + beta~ 14 4 17 1 16 16 0~ N + He --> O + H N --> O + á +4.0 MeV~ 7 2 8 1 7 8 -1~Oxygen~~Oxygen + Helium --> Neon Oxygen --> Nitrogen + positron~ 18 4 22 15 15 0~ O + He --> Ne O --> N + á +1.7 MeV~8 2 10 8 7 1~Fluorine~~Fluorine --> Oxygen + positron Fluorine --> Neon + beta~ 18 18 0 20 20 0~ F --> O + á +0.6 MeV F --> Ne + á +5.1 MeV~9 8 1 9 10 -1~Neon~~Neon+Helium --> Magnesium+neutron Neon --> Sodium + beta~ 22 4 25 1 23 23 0~ Ne + He --> Mg + n Ne --> Na + á +4.2 MeV~10 2 12 0 10 11 -1~Sodium~~Sodium + Helium --> Aluminum Sodium --> Neon + positron~ 20 4 24 22 22 0~ Na + He --> Al Na --> Ne + á +0.54 MeV~11 2 13 11 10 1~Magnesium~~Magnesium --> Aluminum + beta~ 27 27 0~ Mg --> Al + á +0.8 MeV~12 13 -1~Aluminum~~Aluminum --> Silicon + beta~ 29 29 0~ Al --> Si + á +1.4 MeV~13 14 -1~Silicon~~Silicon --> Phosphorus + beta~ 31 31 0~ Si --> P + á +1.486 MeV~14 15 -1~Phosphorus~~Phosphorus --> Sulfur + beta~ 32 32 0~ P --> S + á +1.718 MeV~15 16 -1~Sulfur~~Sulfur + neutron --> Silicon + alpha Sulfur --> Chlorine + beta~ 33 1 30 4 35 35 0~ S + n --> Si + à S --> Cl + á~16 0 14 2 16 17 -1~Chlorine~~Chlorine --> Argon + beta~ 36 36 0~ Cl --> Ar + á~17 18 -1~Argon~~Argon --> Potassium + beta~ 39 39 0~ Ar --> K + á~18 19 -1~Potassium~~Potassium+neutron --> Argon+proton Potassium --> Calcium+beta+gamma~ 40 1 40 1 40 40 0 0~ K + n --> Ar + H K --> Ca + á + ç +1.4/1.5 MeV~19 0 18 1 19 20 -1 0~Calcium~~Calcium + electron capture --> Potassium~ 41 0 41~ Ca + e --> K + X-Rays~20 -1 19~Scandium~~Scandium --> Titanium + beta + gamma~ 46 46 0 0~ Sc --> Ti + á + ç +0.36/0.89 MeV~21 22 -1 0~Titanium~~Titanium --> Scandium + positron + gamma~ 45 45 0 0~ Ti --> Sc + á + ç +1.0/0.48 MeV~22 21 1 0~Vanadium~~Vanadium+neutron-->Vanadium+gamma Vanadium+electron capture-->Titanium~ 50 1 51 0 49 0 49~ V + n --> V + ç V + e --> Ti~23 0 23 0 23 -1 22~Chromium~~Chromium + electron capture --> Vanadium + gamma~ 51 0 51 0~ Cr + e --> V + ç +0.32 MeV~24 -1 23 0~Manganese~~Manganese --> Iron + beta + gamma~ 54 54 0 0~ Mn --> Fe + á + ç +0.582/0.734 MeV~25 26 -1 0~Iron~~Iron+neutron --> Chromium+alpha Iron+electron capture --> Manganese~ 54 1 51 4 55 0 55~ Fe + n --> Cr + à Fe + e --> Mn~26 0 24 2 26 -1 25~Cobalt~~Cobalt --> Nickel + beta + gamma~ 60 60 0 0~ Co --> Ni + á + ç +1.56/1.33 MeV~27 28 -1 0~Nickel~~Nickel + electron capture --> Copper~ 59 0 59~ Ni + e --> Co~28 -1 27~Copper~~Copper --> Nickel + positron + gamma~ 61 61 0 0~ Cu --> Ni + á + ç +1.205/0.655 NeV~29 28 1 0~Zinc~~Zinc + neutron --> Nickel + alpha Zinc --> Copper + positron + gamma~ 64 1 61 4 65 65 0 0~ Zn + n --> Ni + à Zn --> Cu + á + ç +0.32/1.14 MeV~30 0 28 2 30 29 1 0~Gallium~~Gallium + electron capture --> Zinc + gamma~ 67 0 67 0~ Ga + e --> Zn + ç +0.93 MeV~31 -1 30 0~Germanium~~Germanium + electron capture --> Gallium~ 71 0 71~ Ge + e --> Ga +0.32 MeV~32 -1 31~Arsenic~~Arsenic + electron capture --> Germanium~ 73 0 73~ As + e --> Ge +0.052 MeV~33 -1 32~Selenium~~Selenium --> Bromine + beta~ 79 79 0~ Se --> Br + á +0.16 MeV~34 35 -1~Bromine~~Bromine --> Krypton + beta + gamma~ 82 82 0 0~ Br --> Kr + á + ç +0.465/0.547 MeV~35 36 -1 0~Krypton~~Krypton+neutron --> Krypton+gamma Krypton+electron capture --> Bromine~ 82 1 83 0 81 0 81~ Kr + n --> Kr + ç Kr + e --> Br~36 0 36 0 36 -1 35~Rubidium~~Rubidium --> Strontium + beta~ 87 87 0~ Rb --> Sr + á +0.275 MeV~37 38 -1~Strontium~~Strontium --> Yttrium + beta~ 90 90 0~ Sr --> Y + á +0.54 MeV~38 39 -1~Yttrium~~Yttrium --> Strontium + positron + gamma~ 88 88 0 0~ Y --> Sr + á + ç +0.83/0.9 MeV~39 38 1 0~Zirconium~~Zirconium --> Niobium + beta~ 93 93 0~ Zr --> Nb + á +0.06 MeV~40 41 -1~Niobium~~Niobium + electron capture --> Zirconium + gamma~ 92 0 92 0~ Nb + e --> Zr + ç +0.933 MeV~41 -1 40 0~Molybdenum~~Molybdenum --> Technetium + beta + gamma~ 99 99 0 0~ Mo --> Tc + á + ç +1.23/0.04 MeV~42 43 -1 0~Technetium~~Molybdenum+Hydrogen --> Technetium+neutron Technetium --> Ruthenium+beta~ 98 2 99 1 99 99 0~ Mo + H --> Tc + n Tc --> Ru + á +0.292 MeV~42 1 43 0 43 44 -1~Ruthenium~~Ruthenium --> Rhodium +beta + gamma~ 103 103 0 0~ Ru --> Rh + á + ç +0.684/0.0404 MeV~44 45 -1~Rhodium~~Rhodium --> Ruthenium + positron + gamma~ 102 102 0 0~ Rh --> Ru + á + ç +1.3/0.46 MeV~45 44 1 0~Palladium~~Palladium --> Silver + beta~ 107 107 0~ Pd --> Ag + á +0.035 MeV~46 47 -1~Silver~~Silver --> Cadmium + beta + gamma~ 110 110 0 0~ Ag --> Cd + á + ç +0.087/1.156 MeV~47 48 -1 0~Cadmium~~Cadmium + electron capture --> Silver + gamma~ 109 0 109 0~ Cd + e --> Ag + ç +0.08 MeV~48 -1 47 0~Indium~~Indium --> Tin + beta~ 115 115 0~ In --> Sn + á +0.63 MeV~49 50 -1~Tin~~Tin --> Antimony + beta~ 121 121 0~ Sn --> Sb + á +0.42 MeV~50 51 -1~Antimony~~Antimony --> Tellurium + beta + gamma~ 125 125 0 0~ Sb --> Te + á + ç +0.299/0.465 MeV~51 52 -1 0~Tellurium~~Tellurium --> Iodine + beta~ 131 131 0~ Te --> I + á~52 53 -1~Iodine~~Iodine --> Xenon + beta + gamma~ 131 131 0 0~ I --> Xe + á + ç +0.6/0.364 MeV~53 54 -1 0~Xenon~~Xenon + neutron --> Xenon + gamma Xenon + electron capture --> Iodine~ 130 1 131 0 127 0 127~ Xe + n --> Xe + ç Xe + e --> I +0.175 MeV~54 0 54 0 54 -1 53~Cesium~~Cesium --> Barium + beta~ 135 135 0~ Cs --> Ba + á +0.19 MeV~55 56 -1~Barium~~Barium + electron capture --> Cesium + gamma~ 133 0 133 0~ Ba + e --> Cs + ç +0.085 MeV~56 -1 55 0~Lanthanum~~Lanthanum --> Cerium + beta + gamma~ 138 138 0 0~ La --> Ce + á + ç +1.0 MeV~57 58 -1 0~Cerium~~Cerium + electron capture --> Lanthanum + gamma~ 139 0 139 0~ Ce + e --> La + ç +0.166 MeV~58 -1 57 0~Praseodymium~~Praseodymium --> Cerium + beta + gamma~ 143 143 0 0~ Pr --> Ce + á + ç +2.154/1.576 MeV~59 58 -1 0~Neodymium~~Neodymium+neutron-->Neodymium+gamma Neodymium-->Praseodymium+beta+gamma~ 143 1 144 0 147 147 0 0~ Nd + n --> Nd + ç Nd --> Pr + á + ç +0.78 MeV~60 0 60 0 60 59 -1 0~Promethium~~Promethium --> Samarium + beta~ 147 147 0~ Pm --> Sm + á +0.229 MeV~61 62 -1~Samarium~~Samarium --> Neodymium + alpha~ 147 143 4~ Sm --> Nd + à +2.1 MeV~62 60 2~Europium~~Europium+neutron --> Europium+gamma Europium --> Gadolinium+beta+gamma~ 152 1 153 0 154 154 0 0~ Eu + n --> Eu + ç Eu --> Gd + á + ç +0.3 MeV~63 0 63 0 63 64 -1 0~Gadolinium~~Gadolinium + electron capture --> Europium + gamma~ 153 0 153 0~ Gd + e --> Eu + ç +0.106 MeV~ 64 -1 63 0~Terbium~~Terbium + electron capture --> Gadolinium + gamma~ 155 0 155 0~ Tb + e --> Gd + ç +1.4 MeV~65 -1 64 0~Dysprosium~~Dysprosium --> Terbium + positron~ 159 159 0~ Dy --> Tb + á~66 65 1~Holmium~~Holmium --> Erbium + beta + gamma~ 166 166 0 0~ Ho --> Er + á + ç +0.18/0.09 MeV~67 68 -1 0~Erbium~~Erbium --> Thulium + beta~ 169 169 0~ Er --> Tm + á +0.33 MeV~68 69 -1~Thulium~~Thulium --> Ytterbium + beta + gamma~ 170 170 0 0~ Tm --> Yb + á + ç +0.99/0.085 MeV~69 70 -1 0~Ytterbium~~Ytterbium + electron capture --> Thulium + gamma~ 169 0 169 0~ Yb + e --> Tm + ç +0.064 MeV~70 -1 69 0~Lutetium~~Lutetium + electron capture --> Ytterbium + gamma~ 173 0 173 0~ Lu + e --> Yb + ç +0.22 MeV~71 -1 70 0~Hafnium~~Hafnium + electron capture --> Lutetium + gamma~ 172 0 172 0~ Hf + e --> Lu + ç +0.28 MeV~72 -1 71 0~Tantalum~~Tantalum + electron capture --> Hafnium + gamma~ 179 0 179 0~ Ta + e --> Hf + ç +0.7 MeV~73 -1 72 0~Tungsten~~Tungsten + electron capture --> Tantalum + gamma~ 181 0 181 0~ W + e --> Ta + ç +1.83 MeV~74 -1 73 0~Rhenium~~Rhenium --> Osmium + beta~ 187 187 0~ Re --> Os + á +0.043 MeV~75 76 -1~Osmium~~Osmium --> Iridium + beta + gamma~ 191 191 0 0~ Os --> Ir + á + ç +0.143/0.042 MeV~76 77 -1 0~Iridium~~Iridium+neutron --> Iridium+gamma Iridium --> Platinum+beta+gamma~ 192 1 193 0 192 192 0 0~ Ir + n --> Ir + ç Ir --> Pt + á + ç +0.137 MeV~77 0 77 0 77 78 -1 0~Platinum~~Platinum + electron capture --> Iridium + gamma~ 193 0 193 0~ Pt + e --> Ir + ç +0.126 MeV~78 -1 77 0~Gold~~Gold + electron capture --> Platinum + gamma~ 195 0 195 0~ Au + e --> Pt + ç +0.097 MeV~79 -1 78 0~Mercury~~Mercury+neutron-->Mercury+gamma Mercury+electron capture-->Gold+gamma~ 196 1 197 0 197 0 197 0~ Hg + n --> Hg + ç Hg + e --> Au + ç +0.191 MeV~80 0 80 0 80 -1 79 0~Thallium~~Thallium --> Lead + beta~ 204 204 0~ Tl --> Pb + á +0.767 MeV~81 82 -1~Lead~~Lead --> Bismuth + beta + gamma~ 210 210 0 0~ Pb --> Bi + á + ç +0.029/0.007 MeV~82 83 -1 0~Bismuth~~Bismuth --> Thallium + alpha~ 210 206 4~ Bi --> Tl + à +4.93 MeV~83 81 2~Polonium~~Polonium --> Lead + alpha~ 209 205 4~ Po --> Pb + à +4.90 MeV~84 82 2~Astatine~~Astatine --> Bismuth + alpha~ 210 206 4~ At --> Bi + à +1.0 MeV~85 83 2~Radon~~Radon --> Polonium + alpha~ 212 208 4~ Ra --> Po + à +6.17 MeV~86 84 2~Francium~~Francium --> Astatine + alpha~ 212 208 4~ Fr --> At + à +6.25 MeV~87 85 2~Radium~~Radium --> Radon + alpha + gamma~ 226 222 4 0~ Ra --> Rn + à + ç +4.795/0.188 MeV~88 86 2 0~Actinium~~Actinium --> Radon + alpha + gamma~ 227 223 4 0 0~ Ac --> Rn + à + á + ç +4.94/0.02/0.037 MeV~89 88 2 -1~Thorium~~Thorium --> Radium + alpha + gamma~ 230 226 4 0~ Th --> Ra + à + ç +4.682/0.068 MeV~90 88 2 0~Protactinium~~Protactinium --> Actinium + alpha + gamma~ 231 227 4 0~ Pa --> Ac + à + ç +4.66/0.095 MeV~91 89 2 0~Uranium~~Uranium --> Thorium + alpha + gamma~ 238 234 4 0~ U --> Th + à + ç +4.18/0.045 MeV~92 90 2 0~Neptunium~~Uranium+neutron --> Neptunium+beta Neptunium --> Protactinium+alpha+gamma~ 238 1 239 0 237 233 4 0~ U + n --> Np + á Np --> Pa + à + ç + 4.77 MeV~92 0 93 -1 93 91 2 0~Plutonium~~Uranium+deuterium --> Plutonium+beta+neutron Plutonium --> Uranium+alpha~ 238 2 239 0 1 242 238 4~ U + H --> Pu + á + 2 n Pu --> U + à +4.88 MeV~92 1 94 -1 0 94 92 2~Americium~~Plutonium+neutron --> Americium+beta+gamma Americium --> Neptunium+alpha~ 239 1 241 0 0 243 239 4~ Pu + 2 n --> Am + á + ç Am --> Np + à +5.21 MeV~94 0 95 -1 0 95 93 2~Curium~~Americium+neutron --> Curium+beta+gamma Curium --> Plutonium + alpha~ 241 1 242 0 0 248 244 4~ Am + n --> Cm + á + ç Cm --> Pu + à +5.054 MeV~95 0 96 -1 0 96 94 2~Berkelium~~Americium + alpha --> Berkelium Berkelium --> Americium + alpha~ 241 4 245 246 242 4~ Am + à --> Bk Bk --> Am + à +5.5 MeV~95 2 97 97 95 2~Californium~~Curium + alpha --> Californium Californium --> Curium + alpha~ 242 4 246 249 245 4~ Cm + à --> Cf Cf --> Cm + à +5.82 MeV~96 2 98 98 96 2~Einsteinium~~Uranium+neutron --> Einsteinium+beta Einsteinium --> Berkelium+alpha~ 235 1 253 0 252 248 4~ U + 18 n --> Es + 7 á Es --> Bk + à +6.64 MeV~92 0 99 -1 99 97 2~Fermium~~Uranium + neutron --> Fermium + beta Fermium --> Californium + alpha~ 235 1 255 0 252 248 4~ U + 20 n --> Fm + 8 á Fm --> Cf + à +7.1 MeV~92 0 100 -1 100 98 2~Mendelevium~~Einsteinium+alpha-->Mendelevium Mendelevium+electron capture-->Nobelium~ 252 4 256 256 0 256~ Es + à --> Md Md + e --> No~99 2 101 101 -1 102~Nobelium~~Curium + Carbon --> Nobelium + beta Nobelium --> Fermium + alpha~ 242 12 254 0 255 251 4~ Cm + C --> No + á No --> Fm + à~96 6 102 -1 102 100 2~Lawrencium~~Californium+Boron --> Lawrencium+alpha Lawrencium --> Mendelevium+alpha~ 250 11 257 4 257 253 4~ Cf + B --> Lw + à Lw --> Md + à~98 5 103 2 103 101 2~
Very nice! Thank you for this wonderful archive. I wonder why I found it only now. Long live the BBS file archives!
This is so awesome! 😀 I’d be cool if you could download an entire archive of this at once, though.
But one thing that puzzles me is the “mtswslnkmcjklsdlsbdmMICROSOFT” string. There is an article about it here. It is definitely worth a read: http://www.os2museum.com/wp/mtswslnk/